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Friday, April 26, 2024
Reproductive Functions

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Depression is a widespread mental health condition. Pregnant women have a higher risk of depression due to increased stress, physical health changes, chemical changes in the body, and other factors.

While estimates vary, a 2016 analysisTrusted Source suggests that between 7% and upwards of 20% of pregnant women around the world have depression. The actual rate could be higher, since some women may be reluctant to seek help.

Depression during pregnancy can have emotional, health, relationship, and financial effects. Some people know this condition as prenatal depression. However, the American Psychiatric Association no longer use this term. Instead, they use the term major depressive disorder with peripartum onset.

Depression during pregnancy is treatable.

In this article, learn more about the symptoms of depression during pregnancy, as well as the treatment options and when to see a doctor.

Signs and symptoms

It is normal to feel a mix of emotions during pregnancy and about being pregnant.

While a person with depression may feel sad, sadness is just one of many depression symptoms.

Some other signs include:

  • new or worsening feelings of worthlessness or hopelessness
  • not enjoying activities that were once fun or meaningful
  • withdrawing from friends, family, school, work, or hobbies
  • new physical health symptoms, such as headaches or stomach aches
  • trouble feeling excited about the pregnancy or bonding with the baby after childbirth
  • feelings of isolation and low self-esteem
  • trouble sleeping
  • sleeping too much
  • changes in eating habits, such as eating more or less than usual
  • thoughts of death or suicide
  • frequent crying
  • unexplained anger
  • relationship stress
  • difficulty following prenatal health recommendations because of feelings of helplessness or hopelessness

Suicide prevention

  • If you know someone at immediate risk of self-harm, suicide, or hurting another person:
  • Call 911 or the local emergency number.
  • Stay with the person until professional help arrives.
  • Remove any weapons, medications, or other potentially harmful objects.
  • Listen to the person without judgment.

Risk factors

Anyone can become depressed during pregnancy, though some people are more vulnerable.

The authors of a 2017 analysisTrusted Source reviewed 5 years of previous studies on the topic and identified the following risk factors:

  • previous history of depression
  • little or no exercise
  • not having a partner
  • a history of abuse or trauma
  • abuse by a partner
  • feeling out of control
  • smoking
  • using certain drugs, such as opioids
  • sleep problems
  • immune system problems
  • having an unintended pregnancy
  • not having a job

Effects on pregnancy

Many women who experience depression during pregnancy have healthy pregnancies. Depression does not mean the baby will be unhealthy or make any particular pregnancy outcome inevitable.

However, research suggestsTrusted Source that depression during pregnancy may raise the risk of:

  • postpartum depression
  • depression in the baby’s father
  • premature birth
  • low birth weight
  • behavior problems or a difficult temperament in the baby
  • changes in the baby’s brain development

A 2011 studyTrusted Source emphasizes that untreated depression increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Prompt treatment can improve the outcomes for both the pregnant woman and the developing fetus.

Treatments

Many people find that they must try several treatments or a combination of treatments to get relief from depression symptoms.

Some treatment options that may work include:

  • antidepressants to manage the chemical changes in the brain that depression causes
  • therapy to help the pregnant woman talk through emotions, identify coping skills, and getting support for the challenges of pregnancy
  • support from friends and family
  • family or relationship counseling to help expectant people talk about their emotions and manage the challenges of parenting
  • lifestyle changes, such as doing more exercise, as long as it is safe during pregnancy
  • support groups for expectant parents
  • treatment for any underlying medical conditions

Are antidepressants safe during pregnancy?

A handful of studiesTrusted Source link antidepressant use during pregnancy to an increased risk of congenital disabilities. Some studies have also found an increased risk of premature birth and low birth weight.

However, many studies fail to control for other factors that might explain these outcomes, such as worse health in women with depression or the effects of depression itself on the pregnancy. Additionally, some of the research is contradictory and inconclusive. The side effects are not consistent across studiesTrusted Source.

The risks of untreated depression may outweigh any potential risks of antidepressants. Research has found that 60–70%Trusted Source of women who stop using antidepressants during pregnancy experience a return of depression symptoms.

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists advise that the risk of side effects from antidepressants during pregnancy is low. The risk, they add, is highest in very early pregnancy—during the 3rd to 8th weeks.

Antidepressants are not the only treatment for depression during pregnancy, however. Therapy, lifestyle changes, support from friends and family, and sometimes family or couples counseling are also good options. Most people use a combination of treatments.

Some pregnant women prefer to try other treatments before choosing antidepressants. This strategy may work for some people, but not others.

When to see a doctor

Anyone who is pregnant and suspects they have depression should see their doctor as soon as possible. Most obstetricians and midwives have basic training in detecting depression in pregnant women.

They can also help a person decide on the right treatments and answer any questions they have about potential risks to the baby.

To get quality, comprehensive treatment, most people need additional support from a mental health professional.

A psychiatrist can help with deciding on the right medication, assessing the risk of side effects, and switching medications if necessary. A therapist, psychologist, or clinical social worker can also offer therapy and may recommend lifestyle or other changes to improve symptoms.

Summary

Depression during pregnancy can be an isolating experience. Friends and family may have unfair expectations that pregnant women always feel happy and fail to recognize the many challenges associated with pregnancy and parenthood.

Some women feel guilty or ashamed of their emotions or worry that depression means they are unfit for parenthood.

Depression is no one’s fault. It is a treatable medical condition. The hopelessness that comes with depression may convince a person that treatment will not work, or that they will feel miserable forever. These feelings are symptoms of depression, not a reasonable assessment.

Prompt treatment is vital to relieve symptoms and to help a woman have a healthy and content pregnancy.

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The majority of people can donate blood. However, those who use nicotine products, cannabis products, or both may wonder whether or not they can donate blood.

Hospitals and health clinics use donated blood to treat various medical conditions. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of blood donations collected around the world per year exceeds 117.4 millionTrusted Source.

Blood donations can help with:

  • serious injuries
  • surgery
  • anemia
  • cancer
  • chronic illnesses

Read on to learn more about how different ways of using cigarettes, cannabis, and other drugs can affect a person’s ability to donate blood.

Nicotine

If a person smokes cigarettes or vapes, it does not disqualify them from donating blood.

However, both tobacco cigarettes and electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) contain harmful chemicals that may affect a person’s blood.

The American Lung Association claim that a burning cigarette produces more than 7,000 chemicals, including carbon monoxide, ammonia, and arsenic. Several of these chemicals are toxic, and 69 of them can cause cancer.

In addition to nicotine, e-cigarettes may contain the following harmful substances:

  • propylene glycol, which is present in paint solvents, antifreeze, and some foods (as an additive)
  • acetaldehyde, which is a toxic product of ethanol alcohol
  • formaldehyde, which is a chemical preservative present in disinfectants, glue, and plywood
  • diacetyl, which is a flavoring agent that tastes like butter
  • heavy metals, including nickel and lead
  • benzene, which is a chemical compound present in car exhaust

Currently, minimal information exists regarding the exact effects of vaping on blood donations. One thing to keep in mind is the fact that both vaping and smoking cigarettes can increase blood pressure.

According to American Red Cross guidelines, people can donate blood as long as their blood pressure is between 90/50 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) and 80/100 mm Hg.

In one 2018 studyTrusted Source, researchers compared blood donations from people who smoke with donations from people who do not smoke. They concluded that smoking cigarettes does not affect the overall quality of the donated blood.

However, the researchers did note that the donations from the people who smoke had higher concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in the red blood cells. COHb forms when red blood cells come into contact with carbon monoxide, significantly reducing the amount of oxygen that red blood cells can carry.

Based on these findings, the researchers recommend that people avoid smoking for 12 hoursTrusted Source before donating blood.

Cannabis

Like smoking cigarettes and vaping, smoking cannabis does not disqualify a person from donating blood.

Current scientific researchTrusted Source suggests that cannabis use can negatively impact the cardiovascular system by:

  • increasing blood pressure and heart rate
  • narrowing the blood vessels
  • causing inflammation in the vessel walls
  • promoting blood clots

However, these potential adverse health effects should not impact the quality of any donated blood.

That being said, Vitalant — a nonprofit blood service provider — explain that people must not be under the influence of recreational drugs or alcohol at the time of donation.

Other drugs

According to the American Red Cross, people with a history of recreational intravenous drug use are not eligible to donate blood. This requirement helps prevent the spread of HIV and hepatitis.

It is important to note that this is not the case for people who have used drugs in other ways, such as by smoking them or taking them orally. The American Red Cross and other blood donation companies do not specify drug use as an excluding factor.

However, a person does need to make sure that substances such as nicotine and cannabis are not in their system when donating blood.

Excluding factors

To donate blood, the general requirement is that a person should be at least 17 years old. A person can be 16 years old, but they must have a legal guardian’s consent.

Other factors that may disqualify a person from giving blood include:

  • feeling sick or having cold or flu symptoms
  • using intravenous drugs not prescribed by a licensed doctor
  • having an active infection
  • having HIV or testing positive for hepatitis B or C
  • having uncontrolled diabetes
  • having a blood clotting disorder
  • having ever had the Ebola virus
  • having blood cancers, such as leukemia or lymphoma
  • having received a blood transfusion within the past 12 months
  • having a heart rate below 50 beats per minute (BPM) or above 100 BPM
  • having recently traveled to a foreign country
  • being pregnant, or having given birth within the past 6 weeks

Read more about the advantages and disadvantages of donating blood here.

Summary

Although smoking cigarettes, vaping, and using cannabis will not disqualify a person from donating blood, they should refrain from smoking for at least 2 hoursTrusted Source before and after donating blood.

A person may feel lightheaded or weak after giving blood, and smoking can exacerbate these symptoms. It is a good idea to avoid smoking until these symptoms go away.

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Diphallia is a rare genetic condition that occurs when a male baby is born with duplication of the penis.

There are different types of diphallia, ranging from partial to complete penile duplication. Having two completely developed penises, or true diphallia, is very rare.

Ever since the first description of diphallia in 1609, researchers have only reported 100 additional cases worldwide. It may occur in 1 in every 5–6 million live births.

This article takes a closer look at diphallia, including its symptoms, causes, effects on a male’s life, and the possibilities for treatment.

What is diphallia?

Every case of diphallia is unique, and the amount of duplication varies with each. Most males with this condition will have two penises of about the same size, located side by side.

Some males will have a larger penis located above a second, smaller penis. For others, the duplication will only affect the head of the penis.

Earlier classification described three types of diphallia:

  • a duplication of only the tip of the penis, or the glans
  • bifid phallus, wherein each penis has only one column of soft tissue (the corpus cavernosum) instead of two, as is normally the case with true diphallia
  • complete diphallia, wherein there is a complete duplication of the penis

However, current classificationsTrusted Source claim that there are only two types of diphallia: true diphallia and bifid phallus.

Diphallia usually occurs alongside other birth irregularities. These can include:

  • a cleft scrotum
  • hypospadias, wherein the opening to the urethra is on the underside of the penis, instead of the tip
  • duplication of the urethra in both penises
  • no urethras in either penis
  • abnormal heart muscles
  • two bladders
  • a missing anus
  • atypical muscles attached to the bones
  • irregular positioning of the scrotum
  • irregularities affecting the public bone
  • misshapen, rotated, or extra kidneys
  • complications of the kidney and colorectal systems

Males with diphallia are at greater risk of spina bifida. They are also more likely to be sterile.

How does it happen?

Diphallia is a genetic condition that comes about during the development of the fetus.

The genetic irregularity that causes diphallia takes effect during the development of the genitals.

Some researchers suggest Trusted Source that exposure to drugs, infections, or other damage between the 23rd and 25th day of gestation could lead to diphallia, as this is a crucial stage of fetal development.

How does diphallia affect a male’s life?

Males with diphallia are often able to urinate through one or both penises. They may also be able to have erections and ejaculate with one or both penises.

Depending on the individual situation, males with this condition may be able to have a normal sex life and have children.

However, there tends to be an increased risk of poorly functioning kidney and colorectal systems. For this reason, infants with diphallia may have a higher risk of death due to infections.

That being said, this may not be the case when diphallia is not associated with other irregularities.

Treatment

Surgery is the only treatment option for diphallia. Treatment is not always necessary, however.

A surgeon will usually perform this surgery at birth or very soon after. The procedure will vary based on how much duplication there is and the presence of other birth irregularities.

Because each case of diphallia is unique, the surgery to treat it can be complicated and difficult. The primary concerns are:

  • making sure that the male will be able to urinate normally and have erections
  • reducing the potential risk of infection
  • reducing structural irregularities

The timing of the surgery will be an important factor due to the male’s likely age. As doctors often diagnose diphallia at birth, there may need to be several surgeries over time.

Individuals with diphallia often have other birth irregularities, such as hypospadias, duplicated urethras, and cryptorchidism (wherein one or both testes do not descend). Researchers reportTrusted Source that in many cases, surgeons can repair the physical irregularities associated with diphallia.

In one caseTrusted Source, surgeons treated some of the infant’s irregularities soon after birth, but they only removed the additional penis when the individual was a toddler.

Males with diphallia do not always opt for treatment, as in the case of a 54-year-old male whose doctor diagnosed diphallia during an examination for a hernia. Surgeons repaired the hernia, but the patient did not deem it necessary to remove the smaller penis.

Summary

Diphallia is a rare genetic birth irregularity in which a male infant is born with duplication of the penis. This duplication can involve only the tip of the penis or result in two fully functioning penises.

When males are born with diphallia, they often have other birth irregularities as well.

Surgery is the only way to treat diphallia. Surgeons may address diphallia and additional birth irregularities in several stages.

Males with diphallia can lead full and healthy lives.

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Following the news on October 20, 2018 when a 67-year-old woman gave birth to her first child through the In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF) process, Dr. Taofeek Ogunfunmilayo of Atoke Medical Centre, Abeokuta, Ogun State, has urged women not to give up in their quest for children as age does not matter.

He said though the success rate of IVF declines with increase in age, as well as the complications following pregnancy, it is worth trying rather than give up on having children.

Ogunfunmilayo, who spoke with The Guardian at his medical facility, explained that there are possibilities of a successful IVF treatment and delivery at the age of 60, which could not be possible for natural conception, adding that there are risks involved during the pregnancy stage, which is being managed by the medical experts.

“It is a risk; there were some complications. She was admitted twice during the pregnancy stage on the basis of medical issues, which I cannot disclose, but thank God we were able to manage her throughout that period till she got well and then went home, till Saturday, October 20, which was the delivery date and we sectioned her, that is caesarian section for the delivery of her baby boy,” he said.

He said that age was no longer a barrier to getting pregnant when it comes to the issue of Assisted Reproductive Technique (ART), urging couples that are desirous of having children to go for IVF.

“No official age limit, a woman of 72 years delivered through IVF in India. Mama is 67 and she is probably the second oldest mum in the whole world, the first in Ogun State, the first in Nigeria and the first in the whole continent of Africa. There is a probability of repeating itself in Nigeria if people persist in their quest for having children through IVF.

“Anybody with infertility, instead of staying in one place, can make a trial and they may just be lucky to get pregnant and we are here to continue to manage them as soon as they get pregnant till delivery,” he said.

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A lot of women suffer from midlife crisis. This is usually characterized with low libido and vaginal dryness. Problems like these can put sex on the backseat. It’s hardly surprising that most women lose their desire to have sex in the middle age. An excessively dry vagina can make intercourse extremely painful. Not just this, women going through this problem experience constant burning sensation in the vagina leaving them with little desire to have sex.

Lack of sex can eventually take a toll on your relationship. After all, your man needs to be satisfied sexually and if you are not able to do so, he might look for other alternatives.

Fortunately, it is possible to get rid of this problem naturally and safely.

Here are some simple ways to get rid of menopause or vaginal dryness:

1. Boost EstrogenEstrogen Production in Your Body

One of the main causes of vaginal dryness is a drop in the production of your female sex hormone estrogen. This is the hormone that keeps walls of your vagina thick and moist. A drop in its production post menopause makes vaginal walls thin dry.

Thus, by increasing estrogen production, you can get over this problem. One of the best ways to do so is with the help of foods that are known for their estrogen boosting effects. Soy and products are the best examples of such foods. Some of the others include flaxseed, sesame seeds, chickpeas, beans, peas etc.

Moreover, you must also include essential fats in your diet since your body needs such fats for the production of hormones like estrogen and testosterone. Olives, olive oil, and fish like tuna, salmon etc. are the best sources of such fats.

2. Drink Plenty of Water

Dehydration can also cause your vagina to get dry. If you want to alleviate vaginal dryness and enhance natural lubrication, you must drink plenty of water so as to keep your body well hydrated. At the same time, avoid drinks that have caffeine in them since they can also result in dehydration.

3. Try a Natural Lubricating Gel

One of the best and most effective ways to make sex fun again without worrying about issues like low libido and menopause dryness is by using a natural lubricating gel.

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With rates of successful conceptions dropping rapidly across the western world, and expensive IVF treatments becoming increasingly more common, there has never been a better time to empower women in taking control of their circumstances by ensuring that their bodies are vibrant and healthy while trying to conceive. Here are top 3 takeaways for improving your chances of falling pregnant.

1. Reduce Stress

Stress can be a major influencing factor when it comes to conception. In fact, if you’re struggling to fall pregnant, you may have already received advice along the lines of, “Just let yourself relax and it will happen.” As condescending as this may feel, there may actually be some truth to it.

The hypothalamus is the part of your brain that is responsible for regulating emotions, appetite and the hormones that cause your ovaries to release eggs. If you’re stressed, there’s a chance that your ovulation will occur later than it should; or not at all. Therefore, if you’re currently planning intimate moments based on your ovulation cycle, you may be missing that window of opportunity.

Negative stress isn’t the only type of stress that can affect ovulation; positive stress such as the stress associated with a wedding or planning a vacation can also result in a similar outcome. Naturally, these situations vary from woman to woman, with some finding that even a minor disruption in their routine can change their cycle, while others can experience high levels of stress without noticing any effect at all. While stress may impact the time at which you ovulate, it generally won’t diminish your overall chances of falling pregnant. If you know how to identify where you are in your cycle, there’s still a good chance of successful conception.

2. Increase Your Intake Of Good Fats

Worryingly, most supermarket shelves these days are littered with “97% Fat-Free” and “Reduced Fat” products which are the antithesis of a wholesome, natural fertility diet. Marketing and misinformation are the driving forces behind our society’s collective ignorance in this area, and yet good quality fats are one of the most fundamental factors in preparing your body for pregnancy. A Harvard University Nurses’ Health study found that the more low-fat products a woman consumed, the less likely she was to fall pregnant; while women who consumed full-fat foods increased their chances noticeably. In 2010, a similar Dutch study showed that women who consume a Mediterranean-style diet (naturally high in good quality fats) increase their chances of falling pregnant by up to 40%.

Good fats are essential in creating hormones that maintain the function of a female’s reproductive system. When women start consuming a low-fat diet, their estrogen levels drop which has the potential to severely disrupt their menstrual cycle.

As you might be aware, not all fats are created equal, and therefore it is important to select the right types of fats to incorporate into your diet. Avoid any processed fats and aim for products that are available in their natural state such as eggs, whole dairy products, nuts, seeds, avocados, olive oil and carefully sourced fish products.

3. Eliminating Chemical Intake

Thanks to our species’ apparent desire to pollute whatever natural landscapes we enter, synthetic chemicals can be found in almost every environment – the air you breathe, the water you drink and the food you eat. Reducing your body’s intake of chemicals involves much more than just “going organic” or throwing out the aerosol deodorant; it’s a full-scale lifestyle change and one that can dramatically affect your chances of falling pregnant.

Let’s start with the obvious – eating organic food. If a woman is consuming fruits and veggies that are covered in pesticides, meat products that have been pumped full of antibiotics and growth hormones, and heavily processed snack foods; their body is not going to be the pristine environment in which a new life should be nurtured. Eating local, organic produce and free range, grass fed meats is an excellent way to start reducing the amount of toxicity in your body in preparation for falling pregnant.

The water that you consume can also have a substantial impact on your wellbeing and the overall level of toxicity in your body. Most tap water in the U.S. contains chlorine, chloramine (the nastier version of chlorine) and fluoride – none of which are great for your health. Most bottled water, on the other hand, is full of BPA, an endocrine-disrupting chemical which is definitely not something you want infiltrating your reproductive system. The best option for clean water is either carefully sourced spring water in BPA-free bottles or a good quality filter for your tap.

The final stage of decreasing your chemical intake is to scrutinize the body care products, cleaning products, and other general household products that you’re using. Today, most of these products are a toxic cocktail of synthetic compounds which we have been told to rub into our skin and apply to our home environment without a second thought for the impact it might be having on our bodies. You can find natural alternatives to all of these products in most health food stores and online.

Trying to fall pregnant can be a nerve-racking experience for many couples and at the end of the day, you need to make choices that feel right for you. Being a parent is the most rewarding thing you will ever experience, so enjoy the journey and cherish every moment!

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A gynaecologist at the Federal Medical Centre, Yenagoa, Dr Omuku Samuel, has said women at menopause can still bear children with the aid of Invitro- Fertilisation.

Samuel in Yenagoa on Wednesday explained that the oestrogen of such women that were lost could be regenerated medically to keep them healthy and strong to bear children again.

She said, “The IVF process is not difficult. It is normally carried out with the help of doctors.

The process is by joining the female and male sperms together; this can help the persons to have many kids as they want.

Menopause does not start suddenly, it occurs gradually and it can take up to five years before it can be noticed.

Menopause starts between the ages of 45 and 55 in a woman. Yes, there are some components that make the woman look younger like the oestrogen hormones.

Once a woman lacks such component, her breast and vagina become dry.

It is the oestrogen that maintains the woman’s private part; signs of menopause include waist and back pain, heat and hot flashes.

I am advising women with menopause not to lose hope because IVF can make them reproduce children again.”

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If you have been unsuccessfully trying to get pregnant for more than six months, before you embark on an invasive medical procedure and spend thousands of naira for assisted reproductive technology, ensure that your thyroid is functioning at its optimum.

Many women don’t realise that good thyroid function is necessary for fertility, the ability to conceive and to maintain a pregnancy.  A low or hyper-functioning thyroid gland can prevent you from achieving that much desired pregnancy. While there are many and varied reasons for infertility, suboptimal thyroid function may be that “missing link” – especially for those with no specific reproductive problems.

A full thyroid evaluation is essential and it should be done as soon as possible for any woman who wants to get pregnant, especially if she has any of the following:

The thyroid gland is located near the front of the throat, just below the voice box and just above the collar bones. Every cell in the body depends upon thyroid hormones for regulation of the body’s metabolism, blood calcium levels, energy production, fat metabolism, oxygen utilisation, balance of other hormones and weight maintenance.

If the pituitary gland is the headmaster of all endocrine glands that produce all hormones, the thyroid gland is like the deputy headmaster.

Hormones involved with thyroid function include Thyroid-Releasing Hormone from the hypothalamus in the brain, which stimulates the pituitary gland at the base of the brain to release Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone. The latter in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to produce Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine.

Much of T4 is converted to T3 (the active form) in the liver. Thyroid hormones are synthesised from iodine and the amino acid Tyrosine (from protein), and the conversion to the active form is reliant on the trace mineral selenium.

Healthy thyroid function can be affected by exposure to environmental toxins – electromagnetic radiation, chemicals and pesticides, heavy metals like mercury, lead and fluoride.

Other factors that disrupt normal thyroid functions include genetic susceptibility, high levels of stress, nutrient deficiencies, eating the wrong type of food, auto-immune disorders, infections and other hormone imbalances, such as estrogen dominance and high prolactin levels.

How does hypothyroidism affect fertility?

Anovulatory cycles – In this case the person is having a menstrual cycle but not releasing an egg (ovulating).  This makes pregnancy impossible.

Luteal phase problems – A person with a short second half of the menstrual cycle who gets a fertilised egg after intercourse will discover that such fertilised egg cannot implant securely and ends up leaving the body at the same time that menstruation would occur (very early miscarriage) and is often mistaken as a regular period.

High prolactin levels – due to elevated levels of Thyroid-Releasing Hormone and low levels of Thyroxine resulting in irregular ovulation or no ovulation.

Other hormonal imbalances – reduced sex hormone binding globulin, estrogen dominance, progesterone deficiency, all of which interfere with proper reproductive hormone balance.

A new study supports the notion that thyroid disorders can cause significant reproductive problems for women.

The report’s authors believe that testing for thyroid disease should be considered for women who have fertility problems and repeated early pregnancy loss.

Hypothyroidism is also associated with an increased risk of polycystic ovarian disease, a condition that causes cysts on the ovaries and inhibits pregnancy.

The research, published in The Obstetrician and Gynecologist, found that 2.3 per cent of women with fertility problems had an overactive thyroid compared with 1.5 per cent of those in the general population. The condition is also linked with menstrual irregularity, the researchers said.

Abnormalities in thyroid function can have an adverse effect on reproductive health and result in reduced rates of conception, increased miscarriage risk and adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes,” said study co-author Amanda Jefferys in a news release.

She is a researcher from the Bristol Center for Reproductive Medicine at the Southmead Hospital in Bristol, England. We have noticed a strong link between hypo- and hyperthyroidism and infertility as well as adverse pregnancy and neonatal outcomes for over two decades.

Consequently, routine screening of the general population for thyroid dysfunction at the start of pregnancy and especially when seeking fertility treatment or struggling with miscarriage, it is highly recommended by experts.

The thyroid produces hormones that play key roles in growth and development. According to the British researchers, changes in thyroid function can have a major effect on reproductive function before, during and after conception.

Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) affects about 0.5 per cent of women of reproductive age. In children and teens, the condition is associated with a delay in reaching sexual maturity, according to published reports.

In adult women, hypothyroidism is linked with menstrual problems and a lack of ovulation in some cases.

The researchers also noted that thyroid disease is associated with an increased risk of problems during pregnancy, including miscarriage, preeclampsia, poor fetal growth, premature birth and stillbirth.

The thyroid evaluation can be done in any good laboratory and then interpreted by a doctor or better still an endocrinologist. There are  also new techniques using bio-energetic testing to determine whether the thyroid gland is stressed or weak at the preclinical state before it becomes pathological.

Finally, a good diet with iodide salt and good multivitamin supplement can provide a protection for the thyroid function.

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