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Wednesday, April 24, 2024
Pregnancy

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Over the years, many scientists have set out to answer the same question: Does the month or season of your birth influence mortality risk? A recent study takes a deeper look at this query.

Scientists from the United States, Sweden, Germany, Austria, Denmark, Lithuania, Japan, and elsewhere, have investigated this topic.

Some of these earlier studies concluded that, in the northern hemisphere, people born in November have the lowest risk of overall mortality and heart disease-related mortality.

Conversely, those born in the spring or summer have the highest risk; this increase peaks in May. In the southern hemisphere, these general patterns shift by 6 months.

Although scientists have spent a great deal of time and effort investigating this relationship, exactly how your month of birth might influence your future health is still unclear.

Some scientists believe that the birth-month mortality effect may have its roots in socioeconomic factors. However, to date, few studies on this topic have been able to control their analysis for socioeconomic factors.

Recently, scientists from Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, both in Boston, MA, looked into this question once more. They published their findings in the BMJ.

Access to detailed data

To investigate, the researchers took data from the Nurses’ Health Study, which began in the 1970s; it involved 121,700 registered U.S. female nurses who were 30–55 years of age at enrollment. The dataset includes information about each participant, including medical history, weight, height, smoking status, demographics, and lifestyle factors.

The Nurses’ Health Study provides impressively granular detail; for instance, it contains information about the education level of the participants’ husbands, and whether the participant’s parents owned their home at the time they were born.

In all, 116,911 participants were eligible for the current study; the authors collated information about the causes of any deaths. Over 38 years of follow-up, there were 43,248 deaths.

Was there an effect?

Once the scientists had adjusted their analysis for a range of variables, they found no significant association between overall mortality and either the month or season of their birth. However, they did identify an effect on cardiovascular mortality risk. The authors write:

“[C]ompared with women born in November, those born from March to July had a higher mortality for cardiovascular disease […] while women born in December […] had the lowest cardiovascular disease-related mortality.”

When they looked at cardiovascular disease and the seasons, they identified a small but statistically significant relationship. They measured an increase in the risk of death from heart disease for those born in spring and summer when compared with those born in fall.

After controlling for a number of factors, including familial and socioeconomic variables, the relationship remained significant.

These results are in line with other large scale studies. For instance, the authors discuss two Swedishstudies, both of which involved millions of participants and 20 years of follow-up. As with the current research, they measured the lowest cardiovascular mortality rate in those born in November.

“Previous epidemiological studies have relatively consistently described individuals born in November to have the lowest risk of overall and cardiovascular mortality,” explain the authors, “and those born in the spring or summer to have the highest mortality risk.”

Does vitamin D play a role?

The findings from the most recent investigation suggest that socioeconomic factors may not be the primary reason for varying cardiovascular mortality rates with the season of birth. Scientists still do not know why this pattern emerges, but there are some theories.

Some experts suspect that vitamin D might play a part. They argue that if a pregnant woman experiences less sunlight during pregnancy — in the winter months, for instance — she may be deficient in vitamin D.

This deficiency, perhaps, could increase the future cardiac risk of the unborn child. At this stage, however, there is no evidence to back up this theory.

In their paper, the authors also wonder whether this small but significant seasonal trend will stand the test of time. As people live for longer, as food is now readily available all year round, and as the climate changes, perhaps this effect will dwindle, or maybe it will gradually shift. Whatever the answer, only time will tell.

It is worth noting that there are certain limitations to the latest study. For instance, the research only included females and, although the team controlled for a range of variables, there is always the possibility that a variable the scientists did not measure was driving the relationship.

With that said, the large dataset, detailed analysis, and agreement with other large studies make the latest findings compelling.

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The testicles, or balls, are oval-shaped glands that form part of the male anatomy. They sit inside a thin sack of skin called the scrotum. As a person ages, the scrotum loses elasticity, and the skin starts to sag. Certain medical conditions can also cause the skin to appear saggy.

Skin loses its elasticity over time as a person gets older, and the effects of gravity start to become more noticeable everywhere on the body, including the testicles.

Some treatments can help keep the scrotum from sagging too much, although there is no way to prevent or treat the issue completely. Sagging testicles, which people often refer to as saggy balls, are usually not a cause for concern. However, if they appear with other symptoms, such as pain on one side of the balls or in the prostate, a person should see a doctor.

In this article, we look at the possible causes of sagging testicles, as well as treatment options and when to see a doctor.

What is normal?

The testicles hang inside the scrotum, or scrotal sac. The looseness of the skin around the testicles varies among individuals, and in many people, it is naturally fairly loose. The scrotum helps protect the testicles and provides some impact resistance.

The scrotum also moves in response to heat to protect the delicate testicles and sperm inside. In doing so, it helps keep the sperm viable by preventing them from becoming too warm or too cold.

In cold weather, the skin tightens up as the cremaster muscle pulls the testicles toward the body to keep them warm. In hot conditions, the skin loosens to prevent the testicles from overheating. The looser skin allows the balls to hang away from the warm body and encourages airflow around the scrotum to keep the area cool.

As such, even in younger people, the testicles will typically sag a bit. A person will generally notice this once they start producing sperm during puberty.

As a person ages, the testicles will generally sag much more. The process may not be noticeable at first, but by the age of 50 years, most people will notice a drastic difference in how much their balls sag.

Causes

Sagging testicles are a completely normal part of the aging process. A study from 2014 verifies the decrease in skin mechanical properties with aging. The skin loses collagen with age, causing the layers of the skin to stretch more.

While this applies to the skin everywhere on the body, it may be more noticeable in certain areas, such as the face and testicles. The scrotum and testicles already hang away from the body, so more stretchy skin and the efforts of gravity can lead to the effect appearing more drastic.

Other times, sagging testicles may be the result of an underlying issue, such as a varicocele. A varicocele occurs when a vein near the testicles swells up. This swelling can cause an increased blood flow to the testicles, which heats them. The body then responds by dropping the testicles lower to prevent them from getting too hot.

According to a study in the Asian Journal of Andrology, varicoceles appear in up to 15% of males and may have an association with infertility.

Varicoceles may make a person feel as though their testicles are moving or squirming, and they may also notice pain in the area. Anyone experiencing these symptoms alongside sagging testicles should see a doctor. Sometimes, a person will not experience any other symptoms and will not notice that they have the issue.

Treatments

Although age-related sagging in the scrotum is normal, some people may be uncomfortable with its appearance or find that it gets in the way of their daily life — for example, by making it easy to sit accidentally on the testicles. Surgery is the only sure way to resolve the issue, but people can also try a range of nonsurgical methods, including those below.

Exercises

There are several different exercises that people claim can prevent or treat sagging testicles, although there is no scientific evidence to prove that they work. Still, many people perform exercises to help them work out the muscles in this area of the body.

Some people say that they feel better when doing these exercises, perhaps because they feel as though they are being proactive. Even if they are ineffective, testicle exercises are unlikely to harm the testicles or make the sagging any worse.

Two exercises that some people use are Kegels and testicular holding:

Kegel exercises

Doing basic Kegels, by finding and activating the pubococcygeal (PC) muscles, may help some people support their penis and testicle health in general. The PC muscles are the muscles that a person uses to hold back their urine stream.

The basic Kegel exercise involves contracting the muscles as though trying to cut off the urine stream. As this exercise activates the PC muscles, it may improve the strength of the pelvic floor and help with some issues in the testicles, prostate, and penis.

Testicular holding

Testicular holding is similar to weight training the testicles. Holding the testicles in one hand and pulling downward activates the PC muscles. Doing this for 5 minutes each day may activate the PC muscles more strongly than simple Kegels.

Keeping the skin healthy

As much of the sagging in the testicles is due to aging skin, it may help to keep the skin as youthful as possible.

The American Academy of Dermatology recommend several ways to protect and care for the skin, including:

  • avoiding sun exposure
  • quitting smoking
  • drinking less alcohol
  • maintaining a healthy weight
  • eating a balanced diet

These tips may help improve skin health in general, which may slow the progress of saggy testicles.

Surgery

Some surgical options are available to treat overly sagging testicles. These are largely for people who dislike how their testicles look. These treatments may also help in cases where the person has problems that arise from their saggy testicles, such as accidentally sitting on their testicles too often.

In these cases, a procedure called a scrotoplasty may help keep the scrotum from hanging down as far. During a scrotoplasty, the surgeon will carefully remove extra skin from the scrotum to let the testicles rest higher up toward the body.

Surgery works to treat saggy balls, but the results are not permanent. The effect is likely to wear off over time as the skin continues to stretch with age.

In the case of a varicocele, a surgical procedure called a varicocelectomy treats the underlying issue by tying off the swollen veins. The symptoms should go away as the area heals, and this may have a positive effect on the sperm.

Other methods

There is no miracle cure for sagging testicles. People may come across other methods — such as only wearing tight briefs and avoiding sex or masturbation — on internet forums and by word of mouth, but these are not effective methods.

Other sources claim that lotions, creams, hormones, or supplements can help. Although they are probably harmless to most people, there is no evidence that these methods will work.

When to see a doctor

People who notice troubling symptoms, such as pain in their groin or prostate, should see a doctor. Anyone who wants to discuss cosmetic surgery should talk to a doctor about a referral to a trusted cosmetic surgeon.

Summary

The majority of the time, sagging testicles are a normal part of the aging process. The testicles naturally sag, even at a young age, to protect the sperm inside and keep them viable.

Anyone worried about saggy balls or other associated symptoms should contact a doctor for a diagnosis. In some cases, there may be an underlying issue to treat. In others, cosmetic surgery may help a person feel better.

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Many people with uterine fibroids have no symptoms, but others may experience pain and abnormal vaginal bleeding. For some people living with fibroids, the pain is intense enough to interfere with daily life.

Uterine fibroids are noncancerous growths that form inside the uterus. They can grow quite large and cause pain and pressure.

Fibroid pain usually occurs in the lower back or pelvis. Some people also experience stomach discomfort, intense cramps when menstruating, or pain during intercourse.

Easing the pain at home

There is little evidence that home remedies can ease fibroid pain. However, there are a few methods that people can try.

These include:

  • taking over-the-counter (OTC) medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
  • using heating pads
  • practicing yoga or stretching
  • doing gentle exercise
  • eating a healthful diet

Some people may be interested in trying herbal remedies to shrink the fibroids and ease the pain. A 2013 Cochrane review analyzed previous research on the use of common herbal remedies — including Tripterygium wilfordii and Guizhi Fuling — to treat fibroids and their symptoms.

The researchers concluded that the quality of the data in the reviewed studies was insufficient to support the use of these herbal remedies.

Making lifestyle changes may be a more effective way for people to ease their fibroid pain.

Medication

A person can take medication to help ease fibroid pain. However, medication will not cure fibroids, and a person may require surgery later on.

These types of drugs may help ease fibroid symptoms:

  • Birth control pills: These can help reduce period pain. They may also make periods lighter, but they will not shrink fibroids.
  • A hormonal intrauterine device (IUD): This device releases progestin, which can help with painful, heavy periods but will not shrink fibroids.
  • Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists: These drugs counteract the effect of the hormones that regulate a person’s period. They can stop monthly bleeding and may help shrink fibroids.

The GnRH agonists may cause side effects, so doctors recommend that people take these for no longer than 6 months. After a person stops taking these drugs, the fibroids typically grow back.

Surgery

When fibroids cause pain, and medication does not work, a person may consider surgery. Doctors may recommend one of the following surgical procedures:

  • Myomectomy: A myomectomy is the removal of the fibroids from the uterus. This procedure does not remove the uterus, so it is still possible for the person to get pregnant afterward.
  • Ablation: This procedure involves using heat to destroy the fibroids. It will not remove the fibroids altogether, but they may shrink.
  • Laparoscopic power morcellation: For this procedure, a surgeon will make a tiny incision and insert a surgical instrument through it to break up fibroids. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) caution that this treatment carries significant risks.
  • Hysterectomy: A hysterectomy removes the uterus. Sometimes, the surgeon will also remove the ovaries.

Other symptoms of fibroids

In addition to pain, some people experience the following symptoms:

  • very heavy bleeding
  • anemia from heavy periods
  • frequent bowel movements or urination
  • swelling or pressure in the stomach

Diagnosis

Many people find out that they have fibroids during a routine pelvic exam. A doctor can often feel the fibroids in the uterus during the exam.

A doctor can also detect fibroids by performing imaging tests, such as:

  • ultrasounds
  • MRIs
  • X-rays
  • CT scans

A doctor may sometimes recommend a hysterosalpingogram, which uses dye to see the uterus during an X-ray, or a sonohysterogram, which uses a saline solution to enhance the view of the uterus during an ultrasound.

Causes

Doctors do not fully understand what causes fibroids, but some possible causes and risk factors include:

  • Genetics: Fibroids may run in families, and certain genetic mutations increase the risk of these growths.
  • Hormones: Estrogen, progesterone, and growth hormones may increase the risk. Therefore, people who take hormonal birth control or have growth hormone injections may be more likely to develop fibroids.
  • Nutritional imbalances: Some research suggests that there is an association between vitamin D deficiency and the development of fibroids.
  • Race and ethnicity: African American women appear to be more likely than white women to develop fibroids.
  • Obesity: People who have overweight or obesity are two to three times more likely to develop fibroids than those with a moderate body weight.

When to see a doctor

It is not possible for a doctor to diagnose fibroids based on a person’s symptoms alone.

Many other conditions, including infections, pregnancy loss, and cancer, may share some of the symptoms of fibroids, so it is important to see a doctor for unusual bleeding or pelvic pain.

A person who already knows that they have fibroids should see a doctor if they experience:

  • sudden worsening of symptoms
  • heavy bleeding
  • pressure or swelling in the abdomen
  • returning fibroid symptoms after fibroid surgery

Summary

Many people develop uterine fibroids without being aware of them. However, some individuals may experience severe pain and need surgery or other treatments.

A person experiencing fibroid pain can stretch, use heat, or take OTC medications, but if the pain does not improve, they should see a doctor.

A doctor can guide treatment decisions by helping a person weigh up the risks and benefits of various symptom management options.

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An HCG pregnancy test checks human chorionic gonadotropin levels in the blood or urine. This measurement means that an HCG test can test whether a woman is pregnant, as well as whether their body is producing the right level of pregnancy hormones.

Typically, HCG levels increase steadily during the first trimester, peak, then decline as the pregnancy progresses in the second and third trimesters.

Doctors may order several HCG blood tests over a number of days in order to monitor how the HCG levels change. This HCG trend can help doctors determine how a pregnancy is developing.

In this article, we take a look at human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) levels and how they relate to pregnancy. We also examine the potential results and accuracy of an HCG pregnancy test.

What is HCG?

Cells that become the placenta produce the hormone HCG. The HCG levels in the body quickly rise during the first few weeks of pregnancy.

HCG levels not only signal pregnancy but are also a way to measure whether a pregnancy is developing correctly.

Very low HCG levels may point to a problem with the pregnancy, an ectopic pregnancy, or warn that a miscarriage could happen. Rapidly rising HCG levels can signal a molar pregnancy when a uterine tumor grows.

Doctors require multiple HCG measurements in order to track the development of a pregnancy.

HCG levels stop rising late in the first trimester. This leveling out may be why many women experience relief from pregnancy symptoms, such as nausea and fatigue, around this time.

How HCG works as a pregnancy test

Many women have very low levels of HCG in their blood and urine when they are not pregnant. HCG tests detect elevated levels.

Tests may not detect pregnancy until HCG has risen to a certain level. This requirement means tests that detect lower levels of HCG may diagnose pregnancy earlier.

Blood tests are typically more sensitive than urine tests. However, many home urine tests are highly sensitive. A 2014 analysisTrusted Source found that four types of home pregnancy tests were able to detect HCG levels up to 4 days before the expected period, or about 10 days after ovulation for many women.

How to read the results

People must read the urine test instructions and follow them carefully. Most tests use lines to show when a test is positive. The test line does not have to be as dark as the control line to be positive. Any line at all indicates the test is positive.

Test strips can change color as they dry. Some people notice an evaporation line after several minutes. This is a very faint line that may look like a shadow.

An individual must check the test within the time frame the instructions indicate, usually 3 minutes. Tests read after 10 minutes may be inaccurate or show evaporation lines.

Accuracy

HCG tests are more likely to produce false negatives than false positives. The longer after implantation a person waits to do the test, the more accurate it will be. HCG levels begin rising when an embryo implants in the uterus.

Implantation usually happens a week or so after ovulation. It can take several days for HCG levels to rise high enough for a test to detect the hormone.

Due to how long it takes for HCG levels to rise, it is possible for a woman to be pregnant and still get a negative test. A positive result usually appears after retesting a few days later.

False-positive results are rareTrusted Source. However, because home pregnancy tests are increasingly sensitive, some can detect very early pregnancies with low HCG levels.

This sensitivity means it is possible to have a positive test that a very early miscarriage then follows. A woman who delayed testing or who used a less sensitive test might not have known about the miscarriage.

In rare cases, a woman can have abnormally high levels of HCG even though they are not pregnant. The most common reasons for this include:

  • a recent miscarriage
  • using certain fertility drugs
  • molar pregnancy, which is a pregnancy that implants but fails to grow, and which instead becomes a mass inside the uterus

Less common causes include:

  • cancer, including tumors that secrete HCG
  • endocrine disorders, especially pituitary gland issues
  • unusual antibodies in the blood

Factors that could affect results

In addition to testing too early, the following factors can cause a false negative with a urine HCG test:

  • drinking lots of water so that the urine is very diluted
  • getting too much or too little urine on the test strip
  • testing with urine late in the day when it may be weaker

Tests that have passed their expiry date may produce false positives or negatives. Reused tests are not accurate.

Risks

HCG tests are very safe. The urine test is risk-free. The blood test can cause brief pain and occasional bruising at the puncture site.

Urine HCG tests often return false-negative results, particularly very early in pregnancy. This can be stressful and demoralizing to people struggling to become pregnant. Blood tests are typically more accurate, though even these may fail to pick up low levels of HCG in early pregnancy.

It is also possible to get an early positive result. Some women get positive tests very early in pregnancy and then have a miscarriage a few days later.

If they had not had an early HCG test, they might not have known they were pregnant. This can be a stressful and alarming experience, with some people experiencing intense grief over the lost pregnancy.

Summary

Most people first learn about a pregnancy through a home HCG pregnancy test, and many confirm that the pregnancy is healthy with blood HCG testing. Though imperfect, the test is typically reliable, particularly as a pregnancy progresses.

The information that a single HCG test provides cannot differentiate between ectopic pregnancies, molar pregnancies, or other pregnancy complications. Doctors will need further information to identify these pregnancy issues and may request further blood HCG tests to observe a person’s HCG trend.

Although abnormally high or low HCG levels can indicate a problem with the pregnancy, this is not always the case.

People who have concerns about the development of the embryo or the pregnancy should ask a healthcare provider about additional testing options.

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Depression is a widespread mental health condition. Pregnant women have a higher risk of depression due to increased stress, physical health changes, chemical changes in the body, and other factors.

While estimates vary, a 2016 analysisTrusted Source suggests that between 7% and upwards of 20% of pregnant women around the world have depression. The actual rate could be higher, since some women may be reluctant to seek help.

Depression during pregnancy can have emotional, health, relationship, and financial effects. Some people know this condition as prenatal depression. However, the American Psychiatric Association no longer use this term. Instead, they use the term major depressive disorder with peripartum onset.

Depression during pregnancy is treatable.

In this article, learn more about the symptoms of depression during pregnancy, as well as the treatment options and when to see a doctor.

Signs and symptoms

It is normal to feel a mix of emotions during pregnancy and about being pregnant.

While a person with depression may feel sad, sadness is just one of many depression symptoms.

Some other signs include:

  • new or worsening feelings of worthlessness or hopelessness
  • not enjoying activities that were once fun or meaningful
  • withdrawing from friends, family, school, work, or hobbies
  • new physical health symptoms, such as headaches or stomach aches
  • trouble feeling excited about the pregnancy or bonding with the baby after childbirth
  • feelings of isolation and low self-esteem
  • trouble sleeping
  • sleeping too much
  • changes in eating habits, such as eating more or less than usual
  • thoughts of death or suicide
  • frequent crying
  • unexplained anger
  • relationship stress
  • difficulty following prenatal health recommendations because of feelings of helplessness or hopelessness

Suicide prevention

  • If you know someone at immediate risk of self-harm, suicide, or hurting another person:
  • Call 911 or the local emergency number.
  • Stay with the person until professional help arrives.
  • Remove any weapons, medications, or other potentially harmful objects.
  • Listen to the person without judgment.

Risk factors

Anyone can become depressed during pregnancy, though some people are more vulnerable.

The authors of a 2017 analysisTrusted Source reviewed 5 years of previous studies on the topic and identified the following risk factors:

  • previous history of depression
  • little or no exercise
  • not having a partner
  • a history of abuse or trauma
  • abuse by a partner
  • feeling out of control
  • smoking
  • using certain drugs, such as opioids
  • sleep problems
  • immune system problems
  • having an unintended pregnancy
  • not having a job

Effects on pregnancy

Many women who experience depression during pregnancy have healthy pregnancies. Depression does not mean the baby will be unhealthy or make any particular pregnancy outcome inevitable.

However, research suggestsTrusted Source that depression during pregnancy may raise the risk of:

  • postpartum depression
  • depression in the baby’s father
  • premature birth
  • low birth weight
  • behavior problems or a difficult temperament in the baby
  • changes in the baby’s brain development

A 2011 studyTrusted Source emphasizes that untreated depression increases the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Prompt treatment can improve the outcomes for both the pregnant woman and the developing fetus.

Treatments

Many people find that they must try several treatments or a combination of treatments to get relief from depression symptoms.

Some treatment options that may work include:

  • antidepressants to manage the chemical changes in the brain that depression causes
  • therapy to help the pregnant woman talk through emotions, identify coping skills, and getting support for the challenges of pregnancy
  • support from friends and family
  • family or relationship counseling to help expectant people talk about their emotions and manage the challenges of parenting
  • lifestyle changes, such as doing more exercise, as long as it is safe during pregnancy
  • support groups for expectant parents
  • treatment for any underlying medical conditions

Are antidepressants safe during pregnancy?

A handful of studiesTrusted Source link antidepressant use during pregnancy to an increased risk of congenital disabilities. Some studies have also found an increased risk of premature birth and low birth weight.

However, many studies fail to control for other factors that might explain these outcomes, such as worse health in women with depression or the effects of depression itself on the pregnancy. Additionally, some of the research is contradictory and inconclusive. The side effects are not consistent across studiesTrusted Source.

The risks of untreated depression may outweigh any potential risks of antidepressants. Research has found that 60–70%Trusted Source of women who stop using antidepressants during pregnancy experience a return of depression symptoms.

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists advise that the risk of side effects from antidepressants during pregnancy is low. The risk, they add, is highest in very early pregnancy—during the 3rd to 8th weeks.

Antidepressants are not the only treatment for depression during pregnancy, however. Therapy, lifestyle changes, support from friends and family, and sometimes family or couples counseling are also good options. Most people use a combination of treatments.

Some pregnant women prefer to try other treatments before choosing antidepressants. This strategy may work for some people, but not others.

When to see a doctor

Anyone who is pregnant and suspects they have depression should see their doctor as soon as possible. Most obstetricians and midwives have basic training in detecting depression in pregnant women.

They can also help a person decide on the right treatments and answer any questions they have about potential risks to the baby.

To get quality, comprehensive treatment, most people need additional support from a mental health professional.

A psychiatrist can help with deciding on the right medication, assessing the risk of side effects, and switching medications if necessary. A therapist, psychologist, or clinical social worker can also offer therapy and may recommend lifestyle or other changes to improve symptoms.

Summary

Depression during pregnancy can be an isolating experience. Friends and family may have unfair expectations that pregnant women always feel happy and fail to recognize the many challenges associated with pregnancy and parenthood.

Some women feel guilty or ashamed of their emotions or worry that depression means they are unfit for parenthood.

Depression is no one’s fault. It is a treatable medical condition. The hopelessness that comes with depression may convince a person that treatment will not work, or that they will feel miserable forever. These feelings are symptoms of depression, not a reasonable assessment.

Prompt treatment is vital to relieve symptoms and to help a woman have a healthy and content pregnancy.

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Urinary tract infections, or UTIs, are common, and women can often experience them during pregnancy. Left untreated, a UTI can pose a serious health risk to a pregnant woman and a developing fetus.

This article outlines the possible causes of a UTI in pregnancy, as well as the potential risks. We also provide information on how to prevent and treat UTIs.

Is it common?

A UTI is an infection in any part of the urinary system, including the bladder and kidneys. Research suggests it is commonTrusted Source for pregnant women to get UTIs.

According to one study from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 8%Trusted Source of pregnant women experience a UTI.

Causes

During pregnancy, the uterus expands for the growing fetus. This expansion puts pressure on the bladder and the ureters. The ureters are the tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

The urine is also less acidic and contains more proteins, sugars, and hormones during pregnancy. This combination of factors increases the risk of a UTI occurring.

Women are also susceptible to UTIs during and after giving birth. During labor, there is an increased risk of bacteria entering the urinary tract. After giving birth, a woman may experience bladder sensitivity and swelling, which can make a UTI more likelyTrusted Source.

Symptoms

A person who has a UTI may experience the following symptoms:

  • urgent or frequent need to urinate
  • burning sensation when urinating
  • cloudy or strong smelling urine
  • blood in the urine
  • pain in the lower back, abdomen, and sides

People should tell their doctor straight away if they have blood in their urine, as this can be a sign of another condition.

In some cases, the bacterial infection causing a UTI can spread to the kidneys. A person who has a kidney infection may experience the following symptoms:

  • back pain
  • fever
  • chills
  • nausea and vomiting

If people have these symptoms, they should see their doctor immediately. Kidney infections can be serious and require immediate medical treatment.

Treatments

Pregnant women should see their doctor if they have any symptoms of a UTI. Without treatment, a UTI can cause serious complications.

A 3-dayTrusted Source course of antibiotics may be necessary to treat a UTI during pregnancy. A doctor may prescribe one of the followingTrusted Source antibiotics:

  • amoxicillin
  • ampicillin
  • cephalosporins
  • nitrofurantoin
  • trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) advise that pregnant women avoid nitrofurantoin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazoleTrusted Source during the first trimester. These antibiotics can cause birth abnormalities if a person takes them at this stage of their pregnancy.

According to a 2015 reviewTrusted Source, studies show that both nitrofurantoin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole are generally safe during the second and third trimesters. However, taking either antibiotic in the final weekTrusted Source before delivery may increase the risk of jaundice in newborns.

If pregnant women develop a kidney infection during pregnancy, they will need treatment in the hospital. This treatment will involve antibiotics and intravenous fluids.

A short course of antibiotics is unlikelyTrusted Source to cause any harm to a developing fetus. Research suggests that the benefits of taking antibiotics to treat a UTI far outweighTrusted Source the risks of leaving a UTI without treatment.

Home remedies

Women who are pregnant and have symptoms of a UTI should see a doctor. As well as medical treatment, they may also wish to try the following at home to help speed up recovery:

  • Drinking plenty of water: Water dilutes urine and helps flush bacteria out of the urinary tract.
  • Drinking cranberry juice: According to a 2012 reviewTrusted Source, cranberries contain compounds that may help to stop bacteria from attaching to the lining of the urinary tract. This action helps to prevent and eliminate infection.
  • Urinating when the urge arises: This helps bacteria pass out of the urinary tract more quickly.
  • Taking certain supplements: A 2016 studyTrusted Source found that a combination of vitamin C, cranberries, and probiotics may help to treat recurrent UTIs in women.

Some women may choose the above treatments as an alternative to antibiotics. However, they should always consult their doctor before doing so. A doctor will monitor a pregnancy regularly to check the effectiveness of natural treatments and ensure a UTI does not worsen.

Complications

Without treatment, UTIs can cause serious complications during pregnancy. Complications may include:

  • kidney infection
  • premature birth
  • sepsis

A baby born to a woman with an untreated UTI may also have a low birth weight at delivery.

If a UTI spreads to the kidneys, this can cause further complications, such as:

  • anaemia
  • high blood pressure, or hypertension
  • preeclampsia
  • breakdown of red blood cells, or hemolysis
  • low blood platelet count, or thrombocytopenia
  • bacteria in the bloodstream, or bacteremia
  • acute respiratory distress syndrome

In some cases, an infection may pass on to the newborn baby, causing a rare but severe complication. Attending screenings for UTIs during pregnancy and getting prompt treatment when one occurs can help prevent these complications.

Prevention

The following tips may help to reduce a person’s likelihood of getting a UTI:

  • drink plenty of water
  • drink unsweetened cranberry juice or take cranberry pills
  • wash carefully around the genitals and anus
  • pass urine whenever the urge arises, and at least every 2–3 hours
  • urinate before and after having sex

Pregnant women will usually attend a screening to check for UTIs in their early pregnancy. These checks are an important step in helping to prevent UTI infections or detecting them early.

Summary

UTIs are common, and some women may experience them during pregnancy.

Women who have symptoms of a UTI during pregnancy should see their doctor immediately. Without treatment, UTIs can cause serious complications for a pregnant woman and the developing fetus. Prompt intervention can help to prevent these complications.

Routine pregnancy checks help detect the early signs of a UTI.

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The majority of people can donate blood. However, those who use nicotine products, cannabis products, or both may wonder whether or not they can donate blood.

Hospitals and health clinics use donated blood to treat various medical conditions. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of blood donations collected around the world per year exceeds 117.4 millionTrusted Source.

Blood donations can help with:

  • serious injuries
  • surgery
  • anemia
  • cancer
  • chronic illnesses

Read on to learn more about how different ways of using cigarettes, cannabis, and other drugs can affect a person’s ability to donate blood.

Nicotine

If a person smokes cigarettes or vapes, it does not disqualify them from donating blood.

However, both tobacco cigarettes and electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) contain harmful chemicals that may affect a person’s blood.

The American Lung Association claim that a burning cigarette produces more than 7,000 chemicals, including carbon monoxide, ammonia, and arsenic. Several of these chemicals are toxic, and 69 of them can cause cancer.

In addition to nicotine, e-cigarettes may contain the following harmful substances:

  • propylene glycol, which is present in paint solvents, antifreeze, and some foods (as an additive)
  • acetaldehyde, which is a toxic product of ethanol alcohol
  • formaldehyde, which is a chemical preservative present in disinfectants, glue, and plywood
  • diacetyl, which is a flavoring agent that tastes like butter
  • heavy metals, including nickel and lead
  • benzene, which is a chemical compound present in car exhaust

Currently, minimal information exists regarding the exact effects of vaping on blood donations. One thing to keep in mind is the fact that both vaping and smoking cigarettes can increase blood pressure.

According to American Red Cross guidelines, people can donate blood as long as their blood pressure is between 90/50 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) and 80/100 mm Hg.

In one 2018 studyTrusted Source, researchers compared blood donations from people who smoke with donations from people who do not smoke. They concluded that smoking cigarettes does not affect the overall quality of the donated blood.

However, the researchers did note that the donations from the people who smoke had higher concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) in the red blood cells. COHb forms when red blood cells come into contact with carbon monoxide, significantly reducing the amount of oxygen that red blood cells can carry.

Based on these findings, the researchers recommend that people avoid smoking for 12 hoursTrusted Source before donating blood.

Cannabis

Like smoking cigarettes and vaping, smoking cannabis does not disqualify a person from donating blood.

Current scientific researchTrusted Source suggests that cannabis use can negatively impact the cardiovascular system by:

  • increasing blood pressure and heart rate
  • narrowing the blood vessels
  • causing inflammation in the vessel walls
  • promoting blood clots

However, these potential adverse health effects should not impact the quality of any donated blood.

That being said, Vitalant — a nonprofit blood service provider — explain that people must not be under the influence of recreational drugs or alcohol at the time of donation.

Other drugs

According to the American Red Cross, people with a history of recreational intravenous drug use are not eligible to donate blood. This requirement helps prevent the spread of HIV and hepatitis.

It is important to note that this is not the case for people who have used drugs in other ways, such as by smoking them or taking them orally. The American Red Cross and other blood donation companies do not specify drug use as an excluding factor.

However, a person does need to make sure that substances such as nicotine and cannabis are not in their system when donating blood.

Excluding factors

To donate blood, the general requirement is that a person should be at least 17 years old. A person can be 16 years old, but they must have a legal guardian’s consent.

Other factors that may disqualify a person from giving blood include:

  • feeling sick or having cold or flu symptoms
  • using intravenous drugs not prescribed by a licensed doctor
  • having an active infection
  • having HIV or testing positive for hepatitis B or C
  • having uncontrolled diabetes
  • having a blood clotting disorder
  • having ever had the Ebola virus
  • having blood cancers, such as leukemia or lymphoma
  • having received a blood transfusion within the past 12 months
  • having a heart rate below 50 beats per minute (BPM) or above 100 BPM
  • having recently traveled to a foreign country
  • being pregnant, or having given birth within the past 6 weeks

Read more about the advantages and disadvantages of donating blood here.

Summary

Although smoking cigarettes, vaping, and using cannabis will not disqualify a person from donating blood, they should refrain from smoking for at least 2 hoursTrusted Source before and after donating blood.

A person may feel lightheaded or weak after giving blood, and smoking can exacerbate these symptoms. It is a good idea to avoid smoking until these symptoms go away.

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Female hair loss can happen for a variety of reasons, such as genetics, changing hormone levels, or as part of the natural aging process.

There are various treatment options for female hair loss, including topical medications, such as Rogaine. Other options include light therapy, hormone therapy, or in some cases, hair transplants.

Eating a nutritious diet and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can also help keep hair healthy.

1. Minoxidil

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves Minoxidil to treat hair loss. Sold under the name Rogaine, as well as other generic brands, people can purchase topical Minoxidil over-the-counter (OTC). Minoxidil is safe for both males and females, and people report a high satisfaction rate after using it.

Minoxidil stimulates growth in the hairs and may increase their growth cycle. It can cause hairs to thicken and reduce the appearance of patchiness or a widening hair parting.

Minoxidil treatments are available in two concentrations: the 2% solution requires twice daily application for the best results, while the 5%Trusted Source solution or foam requires daily use.

While the instinct may be to choose the stronger solution, this is not necessary. Studies posted to the International Journal of Women’s DermatologyTrusted Source and the Journal of the American Academy of DermatologyTrusted Source found that 2% minoxidil was effective for females with androgenetic alopecia, or pattern baldness.

If a person finds success with minoxidil, they should continue using it indefinitely. When a person stops using minoxidil, the hairs that depended on the drug to grow will likely fall out within 6 monthsTrusted Source.

Side effects from minoxidil are uncommonTrusted Source and generally mild. Some females may experience irritation or an allergic reaction to ingredients in the product, such as alcohol or propylene glycol. Switching formulas or trying different brands may alleviate symptoms.

Some females may also experience increased hair loss at first when using minoxidil. This typically stops after the first few months of treatment as the hair gets stronger.

Additionally, misapplying minoxidil or applying it to the forehead or too much of the neck may cause hair growth in these areas. Only apply minoxidil to the scalp to avoid these side effects.

2. Light therapy

Low-level light therapy may not be sufficient treatment for hair loss on its own, but it may act to amplify the effects of other hair loss treatments, such as minoxidil.

A trial posted to the Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology, and Leprology found that compared to control groups, adding low light therapy to regular 5% minoxidil treatment for androgenetic alopecia helped improve the recovery of the hairs and the participants’ overall satisfaction with their treatment.

Researchers will need to carry out further research to help strengthen these results.

3. Ketoconazole

The drug ketoconazole may help treat hair loss in some cases, such as androgenetic alopecia, where inflammationTrusted Source of the hair follicles often contributes to hair loss.

One review posted to the International Journal of Women’s DermatologyTrusted Source noted that topical ketoconazole might help reduce inflammation and improve the strength and look of the hair.

Ketoconazole is available as a shampoo. Nizoral is the best known brand and is available for purchase over the counter and online. Nizoral contains a low concentration of ketoconazole, but stronger concentrations will require a prescription from a doctor.

4. Corticosteroids

Some females may also respond to corticosteroid injections. Doctors use this treatment only when necessary, for conditions such as alopecia areata. Alopecia areata results in a person’s hair falling out in random patches.

According to the National Alopecia Areata Foundation, injecting corticosteroids directly into the hairless patch may encourage new hair growth. However, this not may prevent other hair from falling out. Topical corticosteroids, which are available as creams, lotions, and other preparations, may also reduce hair loss.

5. Platelet-rich plasma

Early evidence suggests that injections of platelet-rich plasma may also help reduce hair loss. A plasma-rich injection involves a doctor drawing the person’s blood, separating the platelet-rich plasma from the blood, and injecting it back into the scalp at the affected areas. This helps speed up tissue repair.

A recent review posted to Aesthetic Plastic SurgeryTrusted Source noted that most studies suggest that this therapy reduces hair loss, increases hair density, and increases the diameter of each hair.

However, because most studies up until now have been very small, the review calls for more research using platelet-rich plasma for androgenic alopecia.

6. Hormone therapy

If hormone imbalances due to menopause, for example, cause hair loss, doctors may recommend some form of hormone therapy to correct them.

Some possible treatments include birth control pills and hormone replacement therapy for either estrogen or progesterone.

Other possibilities include antiandrogen medications, such as spironolactoneTrusted Source. Androgens are hormones that can speed up hair loss in some women, particularly those with polycystic ovary syndrome, who typically produce more androgens.

Antiandrogens can stop the production of androgens and prevent hair loss. These medications may cause side effects, so always talk to the doctor about what to expect and whether antiandrogens are suitable.

7. Hair transplant

In some cases where the person does not respond well to treatments, doctors may recommend hair transplantationTrusted Source. This involves taking small pieces of the scalp and adding them to the areas of baldness to increase the hair in the area naturally. Hair transplant therapy can be more costly than other treatments and is not suitable for everybody.

8. Use hair loss shampoos

Some minor hair loss may happen due to clogged pores on the scalp. Using medicated shampoos designed to clear the pores from dead skin cells may help promote healthy hair. This may help clear minor signs of hair loss.

9. Eat a nutritious diet

Eating a healthful diet may support normal hair growth, as well. Typically, a healthful diet will contain a wide variety of foods, including many different vegetables and fruits. These provide many essential nutrients and compounds that help keep skin and hair healthy.

Iron levelsTrusted Source may also play a role in hair health. Females with hair loss can see their doctor for a blood test to check if they have an iron deficiency. A doctor may advise consuming an iron-rich diet or taking an iron supplement.

10. Scalp massage

Massaging the scalp may increase circulation in the area and help clean away dandruff. This helps keep the scalp and hair follicles healthy.

Causes

The most common cause of hair loss in females is androgenetic alopecia, which has strong links to genetics and can run in families.

According to the International Journal of Women’s DermatologyTrusted Source, hair loss from androgenetic alopecia may start at a young age. Some females may begin losing their hair in their late teens or early twenties, though most females may not begin to lose their hair until their 40s or older.

Both males and females can develop androgenetic alopecia, but they experience it in different ways. Males tend to experience a receding hairline or bald spot on top of their head, while females tend to present different symptoms.

In females, the parting at the center of the hair often becomes more defined or wider. Females may also experience thinning hairs, and hair may appear more thin or patchy overall.

These symptoms are due to a thinning of each hair strand. The hairs also have a shorter life cycle, and hairs only stay on the head for a shorter period.

Female pattern hair loss is a progressive condition. Females may only notice a slightly wider parting in their hair at first, but as symptoms progress, this can become more noticeable.

Other forms of alopecia, such as alopecia areata, may cause one or more patches of complete baldness.

Other factors may play a role in hair loss, such as inflammatory conditions that affect the scalp and hormone imbalances. Doctors may want to investigate these possible causes if the person does not respond to typical treatments.

Coping with hair loss

While losing hair at a young age may be concerning, hair loss is a reality for many people as they age. One study posted to the Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology, and Leprology noted that up to 75% of females would experience hair loss from androgenetic alopecia by the time they are 65 years old.

While many females look for ways to treat hair loss while they are young, at some point, most people accept hair loss as a natural part of the aging process.

Some people may choose to wear head garments or wigs as a workaround to hair loss. Others work with their aging hair by wearing a shorter haircut that may make thin hair less apparent.

Summary

Hair loss can affect both males and females. Hair loss in females may have a range of causes, though the most common is androgenetic alopecia.

There are a variety of treatments for hair loss for females, including OTC hair loss treatments, which are generally effective. Anyone experiencing hair loss should visit their doctor who can diagnose any underlying factors.

If a doctor suspects there is another underlying cause or the person does not respond well to OTC treatments, they will look into other treatment options.

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A recent study has identified an association between consuming two soft drinks per day and an increased risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. Because the study authors cannot prove causation, however, they call for more research.

Osteoarthritis, which is characterized by progressively weak and brittle bones, predominantly affects older adults.

As Western populations age, therefore, the incidence of osteoporosis rises in step.

The condition affects around 200 million peopleTrusted Source worldwide. As a person’s bone mineral density becomes reduced, the risk of fractures increases.

In fact, according to the authors of the most recent study paper, globally, an osteoporotic fracture occurs every 3 seconds.

Although some of the primary risk factors for osteoporosis are unalterable, such as age and sex, some lifestyle habits also play a part.

For instance, alcohol consumption and tobacco use both increase the risk. Nutrition may also play a role, with researchers particularly interested in calcium intake.

One recent study in the journal Menopause focused on the impact of consuming soft drinks.

Why soda?

A number of older studies have observed a link between consuming soft drinks and reduced bone mineral density in teenage girlsTrusted Source and young womenTrusted Source.

However, other studies that specifically looked for an association between soda and osteoporosis have not identifiedTrusted Source a significant relationship. One study found linksTrusted Source between cola intake and osteoporosis but did not see the same effect in relation to other sodas.

Because of these discrepancies, the authors of the latest paper set out to study the links between soft drinks and bone mineral density in the spine and hip. They also looked for a relationship between soda intake and the risk of hip fracture over a 16 year follow-up period.

To investigate, the scientists took data from the Women’s Health Initiative. This is an ongoing national study that involves 161,808 postmenopausal women. For the new analysis, the researchers used data from 72,342 of these participants.

As part of the study, the participants provided detailed health information and questionnaire data outlining lifestyle factors, including diet. Importantly, the diet questionnaire included questions about their intakes of caffeinated and caffeine-free soft drinks.

What did they find?

During their analysis, the scientists accounted for a range of variables with the potential to impact the results, including age, ethnicity, education level, family income, body mass index (BMI), use of hormonal therapy and oral contraceptives, coffee intake, and history of falls.

As expected, they did observe a relationship between soda consumption and osteoporosis-related injury. The authors write:

“For total soda consumption, both minimally and fully adjusted survival models showed a 26% increased risk of hip fracture among women who drank on average 14 servings per week or more compared with no servings.”

The researchers explain that the association was only statistically significant for caffeine-free sodas, which produced a 32% increase in risk. Although the pattern was similar for caffeinated sodas, it did not reach statistical significance.

For clarity, the percentages above display relative risk, not absolute risk.

The study authors reiterate that the significant link was only present when comparing the women who drank the most soda — at least two drinks per day — with those who drank none. This, they explain, suggests “a threshold effect rather than a dose-response relationship.”

It is also worth noting that the scientists found no links between soda consumption and bone mineral density.

Limitations and theories

As mentioned above, earlier research looking for connections between soda and osteoporosis produced conflicting results. Although this study benefits from a large sample size, detailed information, and a long follow-up period, we cannot consider its results definitive; there is too much conflicting information.

There are also certain limitations to the study. For instance, as the researchers note, the participants only reported soda consumption early in the study. People’s dietary habits can change significantly over time, and the team could not account for this.

Also, although the researchers controlled for a wide range of factors, there is always the chance that an unmeasured factor played a part in this association.

That said, when we look at studies involving other age groups, as well as studies using both men and women, it does seem that soda consumption overall might influence bone health in some way.

The study authors believe that this might be because added sugars have a “negative impact on mineral homeostasis and calcium balance.”

Another theory the authors outline concerns carbonation, which is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water. “It results in the formation of carbonic acid that might alter gastric acidity and, consequently, nutrient absorption.”

However, they are quick to explain that “[w]hether this factor plays a role in these findings is yet to be explored.”

Because osteoporosis is becoming more prevalent, research into nutritional risk factors is more critical than ever. The authors call for more work.

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Experts have emphasised on the need for Nigerians to embrace family planning fully as part of measures to curb maternal and infant mortality in the country.

They lamented that despite the drop in the fertility rate from 5.5 percent in 2013 to 5.3 percent in 2018, according to the Nigeria Demographic Health Survey (NDHS), with a two-percent increase in the total contraceptive prevalence rate (CPR) from 15 percent to 17 percent, the acceptance rate of family planning in some communities still remain low due to several barriers such as religion, culture and fear of the unknown among others. The implications, they said, remain multiple pregnancies and births, population explosion that puts pressure of the nation resources, as well as unsafe abortions, which increases the risk of maternal and infant mortality in Nigeria.

Speaking at a two-day media workshop on sexual reproductive health and rights, organised by Marie Stopes International Organisation Nigeria (MSION) in Ibadan, Oyo Sate, the Director Programme Operation, Emmanuel Ajah lamented that religion, sociocultural inhibitions and stigma, especially in rural communities, are discouraging women to demand for reproductive health care services. He said these pose great danger to the women and the society, as maternal mortality would be very high, especially with the belief held against birth control and population explosion regarded as a blessing by the communities.

Ajah said most of the women, in a bid to reduce childbearing, eventually engage in unsafe abortion, which end up costing their lives, as they fail to embrace contraceptive/family-planning commodities. “Unsafe abortions is the third leading cause of maternal deaths in Nigeria, and an overwhelming health problem in the country, yet it has not generated enough policy attention. Women who die from unsafe abortion are all pregnancy related, as millions of women have unmet need for family planning

“Other reasons for seeking abortion are too many frequent pregnancies, lack of awareness on fertility management, contraception failure, lack of access to quality family planning information and/or services,” he said.

Also speaking, the Head, Marketing and Strategic Communication, Ogechi Onuoha said Nigeria as country is very complex with different religious and ethnic backgrounds, which require massive awareness and sensitisation movement in certain states that are yet to accept family planning as a means of reducing maternal mortality. She said all stakeholders including the government must work together to address the socio-cultural norms such as, religious tenets, and women’s lack of decision-making power related to sexual and reproductive health to improve maternal survival in the country.

Onuoha said there must also be improvement in the family planning programmes in communities, as well as the availability of and access to services and commodities to slow the rate of population growth, which would put the country on a path to a healthier future for women and families.

“The focus is on dispelling myths and misconceptions about family planning, expanding the provision of family planning services and supplies to the last mile, and enabling an environment in which women and girls make informed choices on their health,” she added.

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