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Thursday, April 25, 2024
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Hallucinations are sensory perceptions that appear in the absence of stimuli. Although they are often associated with illnesses such as schizophrenia, these phenomena can occur in the absence of mental ill health. But what explains these uncanny occurrences?

There are many types of hallucinations. They can be visual (sight hallucinations), auditory (sound hallucinations), olfactory (smell hallucinations), gustatory (taste hallucinations), or tactile (touch hallucinations).

For every sense, a form of hallucination is possible. The reason for this is that these phenomena are “ghost sensations” — perceptions of stimuli in the absence of actual external stimuli.

More often than not, when people think of hallucinations, they associate them with illnesses that can involve psychosis, such as schizophrenia, or neurocognitive disorders, such as forms of dementia.

Hallucinations are also associated with the use of mind-altering drugs, including LSD and DMT.

But hallucinations are not always due to psychotic disorders or psychedelics. Sometimes, they occur in the absence of these factors.

So what explains hallucinations, how common are they, and what role might they teach us about ourselves? In this Special Feature, we investigate.

More common an occurrence than we think

A study that appeared in the British Journal of Psychiatry in 2017 suggests that hallucinations are far more common among people without psychotic disorders than scientists had previously thought.

The study authors — Dr. Ian Kelleher, from the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, and Jordan DeVylder, Ph.D., from the University of Maryland in Baltimore — analyzed data that they had obtained through the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey, a nationally representative study of mental health in England.

These data included information on the mental health of 7,403 people aged 16 years and older throughout 1 year.

Dr. Kelleher and DeVylder found that visual and auditory hallucinations were almost equally prevalent among participants with borderline personality disorder and those with a nonpsychotic mental illness.

They also found that more than 4% of all the survey respondents — including those who had no diagnosed mental health issues — reported experiencing visual or auditory hallucinations.

“Hallucinations are more common than people realize. They can be frightening experiences, and few people openly talk about it,” Dr. Kelleher observed in an interview for International Business Times.

“Our research is valuable because it can show them they are not alone and that having these symptoms is not necessarily associated with having a mental health disorder. It breaks the taboo,” he added.

Research published in the Scandinavian Journal of Psychology in 2015 also showed that auditory hallucinations were surprisingly common in a representative sample of the general population in Norway.

In a cohort of 2,533 individuals, the “current lifetime prevalence of [auditory verbal hallucinations] was 7.3%.”

Phantom smells also seem to be a more common occurrence than people might think. In 2018, a study published in JAMA Otolaryngology — Head & Neck Surgery showed that 6.5% of people aged 40 years and over had experienced phantom odor perception.

This percentage is based on data from a cohort of 7,417 participants with a mean age of 58 years. However, when it came to explaining this phenomenon, the researchers were at a loss.

“The causes of phantom odor perception are not understood. The condition could be related to overactive odor-sensing cells in the nasal cavity or perhaps a malfunction in the part of the brain that understands odor signals,” says first author Kathleen Bainbridge, Ph.D., from the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, MD.

Surprising potential mechanisms

Researchers have been trying to build a better understanding of the biological mechanisms behind the different types of hallucinations.

In 2019, investigators from the University of Oregon in Eugene conducted a study in mice to try to find out how hallucinations manifest in the brain.

Their study paper — published in Cell Reports — revealed some surprising findings. As the researchers induced visual hallucinations in the rodents by injecting them with a hallucinogenic substance, they saw that this did not “map out” how they expected it to in the brain.

The researchers observed that the hallucinating mice experienced fewer signals firing between the neurons of the visual cortex, the brain region associated with the interpretation of visual information.

“You might expect visual hallucinations would result from neurons in the brain firing like crazy or by mismatched signals. We were surprised to find that a hallucinogenic drug instead led to a reduction of activity in the visual cortex.” – Senior author Prof. Cris Niell

Despite the initial surprise, the study’s senior author notes that it makes sense that visual hallucinations should appear in the brain in this way.

“Understanding what’s happening in the world is a balance of taking in information and your interpretation of that information. If you’re putting less weight on what’s going on around you but then overinterpreting it, that could lead to hallucinations,” he explains.

There is also a large amount of research into the causes and mechanisms associated with auditory hallucinations — some of the most fascinating kinds of ghost sensations.

For instance, a 2017 study featuring in eLife goes some way toward explaining how and why some people may think they hear voices that are actually not there.

According to the authors, this may be the effect of an error or “short-circuit” in processing internal speech and differentiating it from speaking out loud.

When people speak out loud, the researchers explain, the brain does two things. First, it sends instructions to the vocal cords, tongue, and lips — our vocal apparatus — to prompt them to move in the right way so as to vocalize the correct sounds.

At the same time, the brain also makes an internal copy of these instructions, which scientists call the “efference copy.” This duplicate allows the brain regions associated with hearing to predict the sounds that the vocal apparatus is about to make correctly.

This is part of how we recognize our own voice and speech.

“The efference copy dampens the brain’s response to self-generated vocalizations, giving less mental resources to these sounds because they are so predictable,” explains first author Prof. Thomas Whitford.

Through their study, Prof. Whitford and his colleagues found that the brain makes an efference copy not just of the thoughts intended for vocalization, but also of the inner talk — the internal chatter that people process in the background without expressing out loud.

It is likely, the scientists hypothesize, that auditory hallucinations arise when something goes wrong with the efference copy of people’s internal monologues.

“We all hear voices in our heads. Perhaps the problem arises when our brain is unable to tell that we are the ones producing them.” – Prof. Thomas Whitford

What hallucinations teach us

Many of the hallucinations that people might experience are, in fact, of the run-of-the-mill variety. For example, a vague sensation that you have heard the phone ringing when no one actually called or catching the shadow of a silhouette from the corner of the eye when there is no one there.

Dr. Philip Corlett and Dr. Albert Powers, two scientists from Yale University and the Connecticut Mental Health Center in New Haven, CT, have conducted many experiments into the nature of hallucinations.

They argue that there is a spectrum of phantom sensations and that many hallucinations might actually reflect how our brains work — namely, by making predictions about stimuli and the environments that we navigate.

In a paper published in World Psychiatry in 2018, they write that hallucinations might emerge from a “mismatch” between the predictions that our brains make about our surrounding reality and the actual reality.

In another study paper, published in 2017 in the journal Science, the two researchers and Dr. Christoph Mathys, an associate professor at Aarhus University in Denmark, present the evidence they collected through a series of experiments that appear to support this notion.

“When we go about the world, we’re not just passively perceiving sensory inputs through our eyes and ears. We actually build a model in our minds of what we expect to be present,” Dr. Corlett told The Atlantic, noting that when those expectations do not come to pass, this may sometimes translate as a hallucination.

Other scientists note that even more pronounced hallucinations could sometimes be of benefit to the person experiencing them.

In a 2017 paper in Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, Drs. Filippo Varese, Warren Mansell, and Sara Tai — from the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom — note that not all auditory hallucinations are distressing.

Their study, which enlisted people with mental health issues who also experienced auditory hallucinations, found that how people reacted to the voices that they thought they heard made an important difference to whether those voices hindered or encouraged them in their daily pursuits.

“Most voice-hearers with mental health difficulties in our study experienced their voices as a hindrance to achieving their goals and viewed their voices as distressing and problematic. But other voice-hearers find that voices facilitate their valued goals and are, therefore, a pleasant and constructive part of their lives,” Dr. Varese points out.

Going forward, the researchers say, such insights might help mental health professionals assist their clients in turning the tables on potentially distressing hallucinations.

“[…] we should seek to help clients explore how their voices relate to goals that are important to them and empower them to progress toward those goals. That would be a more meaningful and acceptable way of supporting them,” he suggests.

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These are unprecedented times. Given the real and tangible threat of the coronavirus pandemic on personal, community, and societal levels, it is normal to experience anxiety and sleep problems. Sleep is a reversible state marked by a loss of consciousness to our surroundings, and as members of the animal kingdom, our brains have evolved to respond to dangers by increasing vigilance and attention — in other words, our brains are protecting us, and by doing so it’s harder for us to ignore our surroundings.

Despite the threat of the coronavirus and its rapid and pervasive disruption to our daily lives, many of us are an in a position to control our behaviors and dampen the impact of the emerging pandemic on our sleep. Cultivating healthy sleep is important; better sleep enables us to navigate stressful times better in the short term, lowers our chance of developing persistent sleep problems in the longer term, and gives our immune system a boost.

Daytime tips to help with sleep
Keep a consistent routine. Get up at the same time every day of the week. A regular wake time helps to set your body’s natural clock (circadian rhythm, one of the main ways our bodies regulate sleep). In addition to sleep, stick to a regular schedule for meals, exercise, and other activities. This may be a different schedule than you are used to, and that is okay. Pay attention to your body’s cues and find a rhythm that works for you and that you can maintain during this “new normal.” Make this a priority for all members of your household.

Get morning light. Get up, get out of bed, and get some light. Light is the main controller of the natural body clock, and regular exposure to light in the morning helps to set the body’s clock each day. Natural sunlight is best, as even cloudy days provide over double the light intensity of indoor lighting. If you are living in an area with shelter-in-place, try to expose yourself to natural light by stepping outside, at a distance from others, for at least 20 minutes.

Exercise during the day helps improve your sleep quality at night, reduces stress, and improves mood. Fit in exercise as best as you can. If you need to go outside for exercise, maintain proper social distancing at least six feet away from others. Avoid any group exercise activities, especially contact sports. Many gyms and yoga studios are now “at home” and offering virtual programs at low or no cost.

Don’t use your bed as an escape. While the gravity of the pandemic certainly makes us all tired, try not to spend too much time in bed during the day, especially if you are having trouble sleeping at night. If you must take a nap, try to keep it short — less than 30 minutes.

Avoid caffeine late in the day
Helping others may help with feelings of uncertainty or unease. Even if you do not work in an “essential” industry, your role in maintaining physical distance is critical in our fight against coronavirus. If you would like to be more actively involved in helping people, seek out ways to contribute your skills, donate money, or leverage your social capacity locally, such as providing virtual social connection to your loved ones by checking in on elderly family members or a friend, or providing in-kind donations. Doing altruistic acts may provide a sense of purpose, reduce helplessness, and alleviate some of the uncertainty contributing to sleep problems.

Nighttime tips to help with sleep
Prepare for bedtime by having a news and electronic device blackout. Avoid the news and ALL electronics at least one hour before bedtime. Avoid the news and ALL electronics at least one hour before bedtime. (Yes, it’s so important, I am saying this twice!) The nonstop news cycle seldom provides new information in the evening hours that you can’t wait until morning to hear, and will likely stimulate your mind or incite fear, making it harder to fall and stay asleep. Remind yourself by setting a timer or putting your television on the sleep setting. Make a pact with your family members to respect these parameters.

Cell phones, tablets, and all electronic devices make it harder for your brain to turn off, and the light (even dim light) from devices may delay the release of the hormone melatonin, interfering with your body clock. If you need something to watch to help you unwind, watching something that you find relaxing on TV from far away and outside the bedroom is likely okay for a limited time. You can also curl up with a book or listen to music.

Minimize alcohol intake. While alcohol can help people fall asleep, it leads to more sleep problems at night.

Set a regular bedtime. There are certain times at night that your body will be able to sleep better than others. If you feel sleepy but your brain is busy thinking, it can’t shut off and go to sleep. It may be helpful to sit down with a pen and paper in the evening and write down the things that worry you; you can review this list in the morning and attend to any important concerns. If you have a bed partner, enlist their support to helping you stick to your schedule.

Reduce stress. The evening and bedtime hours are also a good time to perform some relaxation techniques, such as slow breathing or yoga. There are many free resources available for bedtime meditation.

Create a comfortable sleep environment, a place that is cool, dark, and quiet.

Don’t spend too much time in bed during the night (or the daytime). Minimize spending time in bed in which you are not sleeping. If you are having trouble going to sleep or staying asleep, don’t stay in bed for more than 20 minutes. Get out of bed and do a quiet activity — read a book, journal, or fold some laundry.

What if I am doing all these things and I still can’t sleep?
This may be a sign that you have a clinical sleep problem, such as insomnia disorder or sleep apnea. If you are doing all the right things, and still have trouble falling or staying asleep, you should discuss your sleep problems with your doctor.

What if I have been diagnosed with a sleep disorder?
If you have a history of insomnia and take sleep medications and can’t sleep, contact your doctor for medical advice, including questions about making changes in your medication. Many doctors are doing virtual visits now and they can review your current sleep problems and changes to management. You can also consider online programs for insomnia, such as Sleeping.

Remember, don’t stress out about sleep

Disrupted sleep is a normal response to stress, and it is okay to have a few nights of poor sleep as you adjust to new routines and big changes to your work and personal life. But with some simple measures you can preserve your sleep and improve your well-being during these uncertain times. We can’t control what’s happening in the world right now, but we can control our behaviors and dampen the impact of the emerging pandemic on our sleep.

*Dr. Suzanne Bertisch writes for Harvard Health Blog

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Does catarrh show any symptoms?
CATARRH itself is a symptom, not a disease. Symptoms are pointers to a disease process occurring in the living body. Catarrh is a symptom of an allergy or a respiratory tract infection, not the other way around. Other symptoms that might accompany catarrh are fever, sore throat, cough and headaches.

What causes catarrh?
IT is commonly caused by a self-limiting virus (common cold virus), which might just run its course and might require no treatment. It could be caused by the bacteria affecting the sinuses (air spaces) within the skull. It could also build up as a response to allergens (things that provoke an allergic reaction). In other words, it could be a result of allergies. Examples of allergens are pollen grains, dust and dust mites, smoke, animal danders, strong perfumes and even some food.

What are the treatments?
Catarrh usually runs its course without treatment. However, if the condition persists longer than expected (well over three weeks), you should probably see your doctor. If it is caused by the common virus, you might require no serious treatment. If caused by a more serious bacterial infection, your doctor would place you on appropriate antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, and anti-allergies.

If caused by allergies, your doctor would place you on anti-allergies and anti-inflammatories. Vitamin C is also a very important ingredient. Please note that some of these cases might require surgery, as it could be a pointer to something more sinister. Recurrent catarrh, drooling and sore throat in a child less than five years could be a result of massive tonsillitis, adenoiditis, or even a congenital respiratory or heart problem.

Are there home remedies for catarrh?
There are countless home remedies for catarrh. It all depends on tradition and the part of the world you find yourself. Note, however, that none is superior. People having catarrh should drink a lot of clean water to stay hydrated. They should avoid undue exposure to cold. Rather, they might take something hot (hot tea, hot chocolate or soup, and not alcohol) or something minty to clear the sinuses.

Harmattan is a season to expect more asthmatic attacks, because dust, a major component of the season is notorious for aggravating allergic reactions as we have in asthmatics. Nose bleeding is not left out this season. Mild trauma to the nose could unleash a scary amount of nose bleeding. This is as a result of the friable (fragile) blood vessels within the nose, which become extra thin during the harmattan season and ready to bleed on contact. This nose bleed can just be stopped by plugging the nostril(s) with cotton wool and elevating the head. The skin is usually very dry and thin this season, making it very prone to abrasions and bruises. So, people should ensure they keep their skin moist.

It is advised to dress appropriately this season to avoid unnecessary respiratory tract infections and allergies. Asthmatics should walk around with their inhalers. But if symptoms persist despite home remedies, then visit your doctor.

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A big stress factor that isn’t usually addressed is pre-menopausal or menopause effect on sleep. If you’re 40 or over, you can agree that insomnia is real! This culprit must be addressed. Many women experience sleep problems before and during menopause when hormone levels and menstrual periods become irregular. Often, poor sleep sticks around throughout the menopausal transition and after menopause.

Hormones shift throughout women’s lives, and changes to estrogen, progesterone and other hormones can lead to recurring sleep problems well before the transition to menopause actively begins. You might think that a good night’s sleep is nothing but it becomes a precious commodity once you reach a certain age.

Hot flashes are sometimes referred to as, “personal summers.’ Any woman in this stage of life will tell you that if feels like your body has turned into an oven. Sleeplessness due to menopause is often associated with hot flashes. These unpleasant sensations of extreme heat can happen during the day or at night. Nighttime hot flashes are often paired with unexpected awakenings.

There are changes in the brain that lead to the hot flash itself, and those changes — not just the feeling of heat — may also be what triggers the awakening.

When they happen at night, hot flashes are called night sweats. Some women find that hot flashes interrupt their daily lives. The earlier in life hot flashes begin, the longer you may experience them. Research has found that black women get hot flashes for more years than white and Asian women.

Lifestyle changes to improve hot flashes
Before considering medication, first try making changes to your lifestyle.
If hot flashes are keeping you up at night, keep your bedroom cooler and try drinking small amounts of cold water before bed. Layer your bedding so it can be adjusted as needed. Some women find a device called a bed fan helpful. Here are some other lifestyle changes suggested by research:
• Dress in layers, which can be removed at the start of a hot flash.
• Carry a portable fan to use when a hot flash strike.
• Avoid alcohol, spicy foods, and caffeine. These can make menopausal symptoms worse.
• If you smoke, try to quit, not only for menopausal symptoms, but for your overall health.
• Try to maintain a healthy weight. Women who are overweight or obese may experience more frequent and severe hot flashes.
• Try mind-body practices like yoga or other self-calming techniques. Early-stage research has shown that mindfulness meditation, may help improve menopausal symptoms.

Here is what works for me and my suggestions from a few years of trial/errors, research, doctor’s input, etc:
1. Stop worrying about sleep! Period. It also meant I had to address other areas of my life. Most of what ails us is addressed holistically. As a first born with a type A personality, my default to is to find solutions which means my brain is working constantly. Sometimes, I ponder problems that have not yet been invented. Which also means that I’m not present in the moment. I lived in the future somewhere. However, I’ve learned to pay attention to the Here and Now, and enjoy those in my life circle. I endeavor to Live my best life and not try to fix everything. This helps quiet my mind.
2. It is perfectly okay to give yourself a limited amount of time to ‘stress or fuss’ after which you stop and move on to a mindless activity. Sleep will come.
3. Exercise is my go-to therapy. When I run, I sleep better.
4. Sex is a great precursor to sleep but only after both parties are fully satisfied. If the woman is a passive participant, she’ll have to watch her partner sleep joyfully next to her.
5. I am an avid aromatherapy advocate. We must be consistent in this. It takes a while for your body to acclimate to a particular scent. My scent of choice is lavender because it calms me.
6. I drink chamomile or any relaxing tea at night. This is a staple.
7. I love baths and my doctor suggested I take one before I sleep. I soak in the tub with bath beads, light candle. OR take a shower in the dark but rub your body with aroma oils and inhale.
8. Finally, once in a while, I find my way to my massage therapist, who usually says that my body is knotted up; however after 2 hours or so, I am loose and ready to climb in bed

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Lower abdominal pain is pain that occurs below a person’s belly button. Bloating refers to a feeling of pressure or fullness in the abdomen, or a visibly distended abdomen. Sometimes, these symptoms occur together.

Though occasional lower abdominal pain and bloating are common, a person should speak to their doctor if it becomes a regular occurrence. In some cases, this combination of symptoms may indicate an underlying issue that requires medical treatment.

Keep reading for more information on some of the more common causes of abdominal pain and bloating. We also outline various treatment options for this combination of symptoms.

Causes of both abdominal pain and bloating

There are several causes of combined lower abdominal pain (LAP) and bloating. Some relatively harmless, or benign, causes include:

  • consumption of high fat foods
  • swallowing too much air
  • stress

In some cases, LAP and bloating can occur as a result of an underlying medical condition, such as:

  • constipation
  • food intolerances, such as lactose or gluten intolerance
  • gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), although this more commonly causes upper abdominal pain-gastroenteritis, which is inflammation of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract that causes vomiting and diarrhoea
  • diverticulitis, which is inflammation or infection of part of the large intestine
  • ileus, which is a condition that slows the function of the small and large intestine
  • delayed stomach emptying, or gastroparesis, which is a complication of diabetes mellitus
  • intestinal obstruction
  • inflammatory bowel disease (Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis)

Other conditions that can cause LAP and bloating are specific to females. These include:

  • menstrual pain
  • endometriosis
  • ovarian cysts
  • pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
  • pregnancy
  • ectopic pregnancy

LAP and bloating can also be due to conditions that do not necessarily affect the stomach, intestines, or reproductive organs. These conditions include;

  • drug allergies
  • side effects of certain medications
  • hernia
  • cystitis, or infection of the urinary tract infection
  • appendicitis, or inflammation of the appendix
  • kidney stones

When to see a doctor

If the cause of LAP and bloating is relatively benign, symptoms should go away within a few hours to days.

A person should see a doctor if:

  • their symptoms last longer than a few days
  • their symptoms begin to interfere with their daily life
  • they are pregnant and are unsure of the cause of LAP and bloating

People should seek immediate medical attention if vomiting or the inability to pass gas occur alongside LAP and bloating.

People who experience LAP and bloating along with one or more of the following symptoms should seek emergency medical attention:

  • sudden worsening of pain
  • fever
  • unusual vaginal discharge
  • bloody stool
  • unexplained weight loss
  • severe nausea and vomiting

Diagnosis

To make a diagnosis, a doctor will begin by carrying out a physical examination. An initial examination will involve applying pressure to the abdomen. This will help the doctor to check the location of pain and to feel for any abnormalities.

A doctor will also make a note of the person’s medical history, and any other symptoms they experience. They may also ask whether there is anything that triggers the pain or makes it worse.

Diagnostic tests, such as urine, blood, or stool tests, may also be necessary. These can help to identify signs of infection or other underlying conditions.

In some cases, a doctor may order one of the following imaging tests to check for abnormalities in the abdomen:

  • ultrasound
  • X-ray
  • CT or MRI

If the imaging tests come back normal, a doctor may perform a colonoscopy for a closer look inside the intestines.

Treatment

The following are some general home treatment options that may help to alleviate symptoms of LAP and bloating:

  • increasing fluid intake
  • exercising to help alleviate gas and bloating
  • taking over-the-counter (OTC) pain medications
  • taking OTC antacids

If home treatments do not work, a person should speak to their doctor about other treatment options. These will vary, depending on the cause of LAP and bloating. However, some examples include:

  • prescription medications to treat pain and bloating
  • antibiotics to help treat a bacterial infection
  • emergency surgery to remove a ruptured appendix

Prevention

There are some steps a person can take to help alleviate LAP and bloating. Two key steps include quitting smoking and avoiding trigger foods.

The following are examples of foods that may cause or contribute to LAP and bloating:

  • high fat foods
  • certain plant-based foods, such as cabbage, lentils, and beans
  • dairy products if a person is lactose intolerant
  • carbonated drinks
  • beer
  • chewing gum
  • hard candy

Also, people may benefit from increasing their intake of high fiber foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. This will help to prevent constipation and associated bloating.

If an underlying condition is the cause of LAP and bloating, then treating the condition should help to alleviate these symptoms.

Outlook

There are many potential causes of lower abdominal pain and bloating. Some causes are relatively benign and easy to treat, while others may be more serious.

Occasional lower abdominal pain and bloating are usually not a cause for concern. However, people should see a doctor if their symptoms worsen, last more than a few days, or disrupt their daily activities.

People who experience additional symptoms, such as vomiting, fever, or blood in the stool, should seek emergency medical attention.

In some cases, people can prevent lower abdominal pain and bloating by avoiding foods that may trigger these symptoms.

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Asthma makes people’s airways hyperreactive, causing them to get smaller and often resulting in difficulty breathing. While it is not always possible to prevent asthma, people can try to avoid risk factors such as smoking, being overweight, and having prolonged exposure to air pollution.

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), asthma is responsible for around 10 deaths per day in the United States.

Although asthma affects both children and adults, adults are four times as likely to die from asthma-related complications than young people.

So, preventing asthma symptoms whenever possible is vital. The following are some avoidable asthma risk factors.

1. Smoking

Exposure to firsthand cigarette smoke can irritate the airways and make it more likely that a person with asthma will have more frequent and severe symptoms.

This is also true for secondhand smoke. Even when people smoke outside the home or in a car, the lingering smoke and chemicals can expose others to secondhand smoke.

Children whose mothers smoke cigarettes during pregnancy are also at greater risk of asthma than children whose mothers do not, according to the American Lung Association.

2. Obesity

Doctors are not yet sure of the underlying cause, but obesity seems to be linked with asthma. Scientists have a theory that obesity can cause inflammation in the body, including in the airways, leading to asthma.

Obesity increases the amount of specific inflammatory factors that can increase the number of white blood cells in the body. This may cause inflammation and airway irritation.

3. Air pollution

People who live in urban areas, where there is more smoke and smog, are more likely to have asthma. Smog is darker air pollution that tends to be present in bigger cities with more vehicles and factories.

Ozone, which is a major component of smog, can trigger asthma symptoms such as wheezing and shortness of breath.

As well as ozone, smog contains sulfur dioxide, which can irritate the airways and trigger asthma attacks.

4. Occupational exposures

Scientists have linked exposure to irritants such as pesticides to a higher risk of asthma. This risk extends beyond those who work with pesticides, such as farmers.

In fact, other at-risk groups include:

  • children of pesticide workers who store equipment near the home or wear clothes that carry pesticide residue
  • people who live near pesticide-treated areas or factories
  • people who live in agricultural areas where it is likely that pesticide spraying occurs indoors or outdoors

Exposure to harsh chemicals such as cleaning products may also be a risk factor for asthma. This is especially true for spray cleaning products distributed into the air.

5. Allergies

Allergens such as pet dander and pollen can trigger asthma attacks. People who have allergy-related conditions such as eczema and allergic rhinitis are more likely to have asthma.

As a result, avoiding allergic triggers can help prevent asthma reactions.

Examples of allergens that may trigger asthma include:

  • pet dander
  • dust mites
  • mold
  • pollens

If certain allergens trigger asthma symptoms, avoiding these triggers whenever possible is vital.

6. Respiratory infections

Children with asthma who have upper respiratory infections are more likely to experience wheezing. During an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold, the airways may be more prone to the wheezing that can lead to asthma symptoms.

While it is not always possible to prevent upper respiratory infections, it is vital to take steps to prevent illness in children. A caregiver can achieve this by encouraging frequent handwashing and avoiding exposure to people with colds or other respiratory infections.

Family history

Scientists have found more than 100 genes potentially responsible for asthma, according to a study paper in the Italian Journal of Pediatrics. However, no single gene by itself causes asthma.

Some research suggests that 35–95 percent of people with a family history of asthma will get the condition, according to a study paper in the journal Pediatrics & Neonatology.

Although it is not possible to change family history, people can be aware that others in their family have asthma and seek treatment if they start to have asthma-like symptoms.

Such people can also avoid common asthma triggers if they know they have a genetic predisposition to the condition.

Treatment and prevention

Some strategies to help prevent asthma symptoms include:

  • stopping smoking and refraining from smoking around others, especially children
  • avoiding public places where cigarette smoking occurs
  • limiting outdoor exposure on days with heavy smog or smoke
  • encouraging a diet high in fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and lean protein
  • encouraging childhood vaccinations that can prevent common respiratory infections that could lead to worsening asthma symptoms
  • avoiding allergens that trigger asthma attacks, such as pet dander, dust mites, mold, and pollen

A person should consider talking with their doctor if they think that allergens are triggering their asthma.

Recognizing asthma symptoms, such as wheezing, coughing that is worse at night, and shortness of breath, is vital because it can help people seek suitable treatments for the condition.

An estimated 75 percent of severe asthma attacks are preventable, according to the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, & Immunology.

Doctors can prescribe many different treatment types and combinations to help a person treat their asthma. This includes inhalers to open up the airways, steroid medications to reduce inflammation, and other oral medications that help reduce airway reactivity.

If a person takes them consistently, medications alongside preventive efforts can help prevent asthma attacks from occurring.

Summary

Asthma can affect a person’s quality of life and cause serious respiratory distress that can sometimes be life-threatening. Knowing risk factors and triggers for the condition can help a person engage in preventive efforts.

If a person has asthma or concerns about risk factors, it is important that they talk with their doctor about how to consistently and effectively manage their symptoms.

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Stroke is one of the leading causes of death and disability worldwide and in the United States, specifically. New research finds that excessive sleep considerably raises the risk of this cardiovascular problem.

Globally, 15 millionTrusted Source people experience a stroke each year. Almost 6 million of these people die as a result, and 5 million go on to live with a disability.

In the U.S., over 795,000Trusted Source people have a stroke each year.

The list of traditional risk factorsTrusted Source for stroke is long, ranging from elements of lifestyle, including smoking, to preexisting conditions, such as diabetes.

More recently, researchers have started exploring sleep duration as another potential risk factor. Some studiesTrusted Source have found that either too much or too little sleep can increase the risk of cardiovascular events, including stroke.

According to these findings, regular sleep deprivation and sleep for more than 7 hours per night are each associated with a higher risk of stroke.

Now, a study appearing in the journal Neurology finds an association between daytime naps, excessive sleep, and stroke risk.

Dr. Xiaomin Zhang, from Huazhong University of Science and Technology, in Wuhan, China, is the corresponding author of the paper that details this study.

85% higher risk in long sleepers, nappers

Dr. Zhang and the team collected information from 31,750 people in China. None of the participants — who were 62 years old, on average — had a history of stroke or any other serious health condition at the start of the study.

The participants answered questions about their sleeping patterns and napping habits, and the researchers clinically followed the group for an average of 6 years.

The team found that 8% of the participants were in the habit of taking naps that lasted longer than 90 minutes, and 24% reported sleeping for at least 9 hours each night.

Over the study period, there were 1,557 strokes among the participants. Those who slept for 9 or more hours per night were 23% more likely to experience a stroke than those who regularly slept only 7–8 hours each night.

People who got less than 7 hours of shuteye or 8–9 hours had no higher risk of stroke than those who slept 7–8 hours.

Importantly, people who both slept for longer than 9 hours and napped for more than 90 minutes per day had an 85% higher risk of stroke than those who slept and napped moderately.

Finally, sleep quality seemed to play a role — people who reported poor sleep quality were 29% more likely to have a stroke than those whose sleep quality was reportedly good.

These results continued to be significant after adjusting for potential confounders, such as hypertension, diabetes, and smoking.

“These results highlight the importance of moderate napping and sleeping duration and maintaining good sleep quality, especially in middle-age and older adults.”

Dr. Xiaomin Zhang

Study limitations and potential mechanisms

The researchers acknowledge some limitations to their work, as well as the fact that more research is necessary.

First, because the study was observational, it cannot prove causality. Second, the research did not account for sleep apnea or other sleep disorders that may have influenced the results.

Third, self-reported data is not as reliable as data recorded by researchers who observe participants’ sleep.

Finally, the results may only apply to older, healthy Chinese adults and not to other populations.

“More research is needed to understand how taking long naps and sleeping longer hours at night may be tied to an increased risk of stroke, but previous studies have shown that long nappers and sleepers have unfavorable changes in their cholesterol levels and increased waist circumferences, both of which are risk factors for stroke,” explains Dr. Zhang.

“In addition, long napping and sleeping may suggest an overall inactive lifestyle, which is also related to increased risk of stroke.”

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Neck tension refers to neck pain that develops when the muscles in the neck cannot relax, which can lead to soreness, muscle spasms, and headaches. It has numerous possible causes, ranging from joint problems to inflamed nerves.

Depending on the underlying cause, people can experience different types of neck tension and pain, which distinct symptoms can accompany. Research suggests that as many as 71% of adultsTrusted Source around the world will experience neck pain at some point in their lifetime.

Continue reading this article to learn more about the causes, symptoms, and treatment of neck tension.

Causes

The brain sends electrical signals, or nerve impulses, to trigger muscle movement. Muscles can either contract or relax, depending on the message that they receive from the brain.

Muscle tension occurs when a muscle stays contracted despite receiving signals from the brain that tell it to relax. If a muscle remains contracted for too long, it can cause pain.

People can develop neck tension for numerous reasons. Common causes of neck tension include:

Poor posture

Poor posture can affect the neck muscles. People who find themselves hunching over their computer or slouching in their chair all day may notice some neck tension after a while.

The authors of a 2016 studyTrusted Source involving 126 college students found a correlation between a forward head position and increased neck pain and disability.

Poor posture can cause the weight of the head to shift forward and away from the center of the body, forcing the neck muscles to work harder to support the head.

Hunching over a computer or looking down at a phone not only moves the head forward but also forces the neck to bend with it. This bending can overextend the muscles in the back of the neck, resulting in pain and inflammation.

Sleeping in the wrong position

Posture affects the body at all times, even during sleep. People who sleep on their stomachs tend to rest one side of their face on the pillow. Doing this can overextend the muscles on that side of the neck.

Sleeping with large pillows can elevate the head too high, forcing the neck to bend forward. Staying in this position throughout the night may result in neck tension the following morning.

Repetitive neck movements

People who perform repetitive movements throughout the day can develop repetitive motion disorders.

While these disorders usually occur in the hands, wrists, and shoulders, they can also affect the neck, according to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.

Without treatment, repetitive motion disorders can lead to pain, swelling, and even permanent tissue damage.

Teeth grinding

Bruxism is a condition in which people grind or clench their teeth while they sleep. Grinding or clenching the teeth puts pressure on the muscles in the jaw and neck, which can cause neck tension, pain, and headaches.

Injuries

A person can injure the muscles in their neck if they lift heavy weights, play impact sports, or experience whiplash from a car accident.

These types of injuries can cause mild-to-severe muscle strains, which may require medical treatment or physical therapy.

Untreated muscle strains can lead to persistent neck pain and even permanent damage that reduces the range of motion and flexibility in the neck.

Stress

Stress has a powerful effect on the entire body. When the brain senses stress, it signals the release of several hormones, such as cortisol and epinephrine. These hormones increase the heart rate and blood pressure, as well as tightening the muscles.

When a person experiences stress regularly, their muscles remain tense and contracted for longer periods, which can result in neck and shoulder tension.

According to a 2017 study involving 148 people with migraine, nearly 67% of the participants also experienced tension-type headaches and neck pain.

These individuals also reported higher levels of stress, engaged in less physical activity, and rated their health poorly in comparison with the participants who had migraine without tension headaches and neck pain.

Symptoms

The symptoms of neck tension can vary in their severity but typically include:

  • muscle stiffness or soreness
  • muscle spasms
  • sharp or intense pain that worsens with movement

Exercises

Stretching helps improve flexibility and range of motion, while exercising increases muscle strength. Improving muscle flexibility and strength can help support proper posture and relieve neck tension. People may find the following stretches and exercises beneficial in preventing or relieving neck tension:

Basic neck stretch

To perform a basic neck stretch, people can follow these steps:

  • Sit or stand up straight with the neck in a neutral position and the arms and shoulders relaxed.
  • Reach the right hand over the head, placing the palm on the left side of the head.
  • Stretch the left side of the neck by gently pulling the head over to the right.
  • Hold this stretch for 30 seconds and then repeat on the other side.

Neck rolls

Neck rolls involve the following series of movements:

  • Begin with the head in a neutral position.
  • Drop the chin toward the chest.
  • Slowly roll the head to one side so that the ear almost touches the shoulder.
  • Continue rolling the head in the same direction, allowing the top of the head to face backward.
  • Bring the head around to the other shoulder.
  • Complete a full rotation by bringing the head to the front of the body, keeping the chin tucked into the chest.
  • Do 5–10 neck rolls in one direction and then repeat the exercise going in the opposite direction.

Forward neck stretch

This simple stretch may help relieve tension:

  • Sit or stand with a straight back, keeping the shoulders and arms relaxed.
  • Interlace the fingers and place the palms on the back of the head with the elbows facing forward.
  • Gently pull the head down toward the chest.
  • Hold this stretch for 30 seconds.

Side-to-side neck exercise

People can perform this exercise as follows:

  • Sit upright with the shoulders back and the head and neck in a neutral position.
  • Slowly rotate the head from side to side, keeping the chin parallel to the ground.
  • Keep the rotations small to avoid overextending the neck muscles.
  • Complete 5–10 rotations on each side.

Shoulder blade squeeze

A shoulder blade squeeze requires a person to follow the steps below:

  • Stand up straight and spread the feet apart.
  • Start with the shoulders in a relaxed position.
  • Squeeze the shoulder blades together behind the body.
  • Hold for 5 seconds.
  • Repeat this exercise 5–10 times.

Standing pushups

People can follow these steps to do a standing pushup:

  • Stand about an arm’s length away from a wall with the feet spread apart.
  • Place the hands on the wall, making sure that they align with the shoulders.
  • Keeping the back straight, slowly bend the elbows, bringing the upper body toward the wall.
  • Straighten the elbows and return to the starting position.
  • Repeat this exercise 5–10 times.

Remedies

In addition to the stretches and exercises above, people can relieve neck tension with rest, over-the-counter (OTC) medications, and lifestyle changes.

The following remedies may help people manage neck tension:

  • applying a cold compress to reduce pain and inflammation
  • applying a warm compress to help relax tense neck muscles
  • taking OTC pain relievers to reduce mild-to-moderate muscle pain
  • taking an Epsom salt bath
  • practicing stress management and relaxation techniques, such as meditation and yoga
  • exercising regularly
  • getting a massage
  • changing sleeping positions and using pillows that support the neck without overextending it

When to see a doctor

People may wish to see a doctor if they experience persistent neck tension that does not improve with at-home exercises and remedies.

People may require immediate medical attention if they develop neck pain after an injury or a car accident or if they experience the following symptoms:

  • intense or sharp neck pain
  • recurring headaches
  • fever
  • nausea
  • vomiting

People who grind or clench their teeth at night can speak with a dentist about getting a bite guard to wear at night.

Summary

Neck pain is a common complaint that affects people all around the world. Muscle tension is a common cause of neck pain and can develop as a result of poor posture, repetitive movements, and injuries, among other factors.

People can relieve neck tension by stretching the neck muscles, which improves flexibility and range of motion. Exercises that target the muscles in the back, shoulders, and neck can help improve a person’s posture and prevent neck tension.

People who experience neck tension that interferes with their ability to function normally may wish to consider speaking with a doctor about medical treatment options.

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As the use of marijuana is increasing in the United States, researchers are asking whether the use of this substance — particularly smoking joints — is associated with an increased risk of any form of cancer, and, if so, which.

Marijuana is one of the most widely used drugs in the United States, with more than one in seven adults reporting that they used marijuana in 2017.

Statistical reports project that sales of cannabis for recreational purposes in the U.S. will amount to $11,670 million between 2014 and 2020.

According to recent researchTrusted Source, smoking a joint remains one of the main ways in which individuals use marijuana recreationally.

While specialists already know that smoking tobacco cigarettes is a top risk factor for many forms of cancer, it remains unclear whether smoking marijuana can increase cancer risk in a similar way.

To try to find out whether there is a link between recreational marijuana use and cancer, researchers from the Northern California Institute of Research and Education in San Francisco and other collaborating institutions recently conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies assessing this potential association.

In their paper — which appears in JAMA Network OpenTrusted Source — the team notes that marijuana joints and tobacco cigarettes share many of the same potentially carcinogenic substances.

“Marijuana smoke and tobacco smoke share carcinogens, including toxic gases, reactive oxygen species, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzo[alpha]pyrene and phenols, which are 20 times higher in unfiltered marijuana than in cigarette smoke,” write first author Dr. Mehrnaz Ghasemiesfe and colleagues.

“Given that cancer is the second leading cause of death in the United States and smoking remains the largest preventable cause of cancer death (responsible for 28.6% of all cancer deaths in 2014), similar toxic effects of marijuana smoke and tobacco smoke may have important health implications,” they go on to emphasize.

‘Misinformation — a threat to public health’

Dr. Ghasemiesfe and team identified 25 studies assessing the link between marijuana use and the risk of developing different forms of cancer. More specifically, eight of these studies focused on lung cancer, nine looked at head and neck cancers, seven examined urogenital cancers, and four covered various other forms of cancer.

The studies found associations of different strengths between long-term marijuana use and various forms of cancer.

The researchers note that the study results regarding the link between marijuana lung cancer risk were mixed — so much so that they were unable to pool the data.

For head and neck cancer, the researchers concluded that “ever use,” which they define as exposure equivalent to smoking one joint a day for 1 year, did not appear to increase the risk, although the strength of the evidence was low. However, the studies produced mixed findings for heavier users.

There was insufficient evidence to link this drug to a heightened risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma, oral cancer, or laryngeal, pharyngeal, and esophageal cancers.

Among urogenital cancers, the investigators found that individuals who had used marijuana for more than 10 years appeared to have a higher risk of testicular cancer — more specifically, testicular germ cell tumors. Once again, however, the strength of the existing evidence was low.

There was insufficient evidence that marijuana use was associated with an increased risk of other forms of cancer, including prostate, cervical, penile, and colorectal cancers.

Dr. Ghasemiesfe and colleagues note that the studies that they had access to had many limitations, including numerous methodological problems and an insufficient number of participants who reported high levels of marijuana use.

Going forward, the team suggests that there is an urgent need for better quality studies assessing the potential relationship between marijuana and cancer. The researchers conclude:

“Misinformation [on this topic] may constitute an additional threat to public health; cannabis is being increasingly marketed as a potential cure for cancer in the absence of evidence, with enormous engagement in this misinformation on social media, particularly in states that have legalized recreational use.”

“As marijuana smoking and other forms of marijuana use increase and evolve, it will be critical to develop a better understanding of the association of these different use behaviors with the development of cancers and other chronic conditions and to ensure accurate messaging to the public,” they add.

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A recent study has identified an association between consuming two soft drinks per day and an increased risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women. Because the study authors cannot prove causation, however, they call for more research.

Osteoarthritis, which is characterized by progressively weak and brittle bones, predominantly affects older adults.

As Western populations age, therefore, the incidence of osteoporosis rises in step.

The condition affects around 200 million peopleTrusted Source worldwide. As a person’s bone mineral density becomes reduced, the risk of fractures increases.

In fact, according to the authors of the most recent study paper, globally, an osteoporotic fracture occurs every 3 seconds.

Although some of the primary risk factors for osteoporosis are unalterable, such as age and sex, some lifestyle habits also play a part.

For instance, alcohol consumption and tobacco use both increase the risk. Nutrition may also play a role, with researchers particularly interested in calcium intake.

One recent study in the journal Menopause focused on the impact of consuming soft drinks.

Why soda?

A number of older studies have observed a link between consuming soft drinks and reduced bone mineral density in teenage girlsTrusted Source and young womenTrusted Source.

However, other studies that specifically looked for an association between soda and osteoporosis have not identifiedTrusted Source a significant relationship. One study found linksTrusted Source between cola intake and osteoporosis but did not see the same effect in relation to other sodas.

Because of these discrepancies, the authors of the latest paper set out to study the links between soft drinks and bone mineral density in the spine and hip. They also looked for a relationship between soda intake and the risk of hip fracture over a 16 year follow-up period.

To investigate, the scientists took data from the Women’s Health Initiative. This is an ongoing national study that involves 161,808 postmenopausal women. For the new analysis, the researchers used data from 72,342 of these participants.

As part of the study, the participants provided detailed health information and questionnaire data outlining lifestyle factors, including diet. Importantly, the diet questionnaire included questions about their intakes of caffeinated and caffeine-free soft drinks.

What did they find?

During their analysis, the scientists accounted for a range of variables with the potential to impact the results, including age, ethnicity, education level, family income, body mass index (BMI), use of hormonal therapy and oral contraceptives, coffee intake, and history of falls.

As expected, they did observe a relationship between soda consumption and osteoporosis-related injury. The authors write:

“For total soda consumption, both minimally and fully adjusted survival models showed a 26% increased risk of hip fracture among women who drank on average 14 servings per week or more compared with no servings.”

The researchers explain that the association was only statistically significant for caffeine-free sodas, which produced a 32% increase in risk. Although the pattern was similar for caffeinated sodas, it did not reach statistical significance.

For clarity, the percentages above display relative risk, not absolute risk.

The study authors reiterate that the significant link was only present when comparing the women who drank the most soda — at least two drinks per day — with those who drank none. This, they explain, suggests “a threshold effect rather than a dose-response relationship.”

It is also worth noting that the scientists found no links between soda consumption and bone mineral density.

Limitations and theories

As mentioned above, earlier research looking for connections between soda and osteoporosis produced conflicting results. Although this study benefits from a large sample size, detailed information, and a long follow-up period, we cannot consider its results definitive; there is too much conflicting information.

There are also certain limitations to the study. For instance, as the researchers note, the participants only reported soda consumption early in the study. People’s dietary habits can change significantly over time, and the team could not account for this.

Also, although the researchers controlled for a wide range of factors, there is always the chance that an unmeasured factor played a part in this association.

That said, when we look at studies involving other age groups, as well as studies using both men and women, it does seem that soda consumption overall might influence bone health in some way.

The study authors believe that this might be because added sugars have a “negative impact on mineral homeostasis and calcium balance.”

Another theory the authors outline concerns carbonation, which is the process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water. “It results in the formation of carbonic acid that might alter gastric acidity and, consequently, nutrient absorption.”

However, they are quick to explain that “[w]hether this factor plays a role in these findings is yet to be explored.”

Because osteoporosis is becoming more prevalent, research into nutritional risk factors is more critical than ever. The authors call for more work.

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